Key Highlights: 

• Probiotics are live bacteria and yeast that may provide health benefits when consumed. 
• There is evidence suggesting probiotics may help manage certain types of constipation. 
• Factors like individual reactions, types of probiotics, and their effect on various constipation conditions may influence the overall outcomes.  
• Some potential side effects of probiotics include bloating, gas, headaches, elevated histamine levels, and increased risk of infections in specific individuals. 
• Choosing the right probiotic strain, starting with low doses, and monitoring individual reactions are important steps that can be taken to use probiotics safely. 

Introduction 

The world of gut health can be complicated and mysterious. You might have heard about probiotics and their potential benefits for a myriad of health issues, one of which is digestion. However, you might also be wondering whether these tiny microorganisms can create some trouble in particular, if probiotics can cause constipation. In this article, we will delve into what probiotics are, explore their connection to constipation, and examine possible side effects and safety precautions. Lastly, we will answer some frequently asked questions regarding this topic.

Researchers believe that probiotics might help in building a stronger immune system by improving both cell-based and antibody-based immune responses. In my opinion, you might consider consuming probiotics in a prescribed amount after consulting your doctor.

Dr. Siddharth Gupta, MD

Understanding probiotics 

Probiotics definition 

Probiotics are tiny living organisms. They are bacteria and yeasts. When we eat them, they may help us get healthier. They are found in foods that have been through a process called fermentation, such as yogurt, kefir, sauerkraut, and kimchi. You can also find them in pills.  

Health benefits of probiotics 

There has been plenty of research done on probiotics. It shows that they may help improve digestion, boost your immune system, cut down on inflammation, and help your body take in nutrients. Studies show that they may also help with problems in your gut, such as irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, and even constipation. 

Constipation overview 

Constipation is a common problem that anyone can have. It makes it hard to go to the bathroom. Doctors define constipation as going fewer than three times a week. Other signs include straining or passing stools that are hard and dry. It can be ongoing, or intermittent and there can be many reasons for it. 

• Causes of constipation 

Some things that may cause constipation include not eating enough fiber, not drinking enough water, not moving around a lot, feeling stressed, taking certain medicines, and having medical conditions like hypothyroidism and diabetes. Other conditions, like irritable bowel syndrome itself, can also lead to constipation. 

• Traditional constipation  management options 

Often, doctors suggest changes in lifestyle to deal with constipation. This includes eating more fibre, drinking more liquid, getting regular exercise, and dealing with stress. If such changes don’t bring relief, then doctors may suggest laxatives, stool softeners, or certain prescribed drugs. 

Vaginal infections during pregnancy caused by bacteria like staphylococci might elevate the risk of a child developing asthma by the age of five. In my opinion, taking probiotics during pregnancy may reduce the chances of children developing allergic conditions such as asthma.

Dr. Rajeev Singh, BAMS

The link between probiotics and constipation 

So then, the big question is if probiotics cause constipation. And the answer is, not really. In fact some studies say that probiotics can aid in dealing with constipation! However, the effects may vary based on the exact type of constipation you suffer from. 

1. Probiotics and digestive symptoms 

We’ve known for a while that probiotics support a healthy digestive system. They maintain a proper balance of good and bad bacteria in the gut. This balance, called the gut microbiota, plays a big part in digestion, immune function, and overall wellbeing. When there is imbalance, you may face issues like constipation. 

• Probiotics as a management option for constipation 

There is growing proof that some types of probiotics may help reduce the impact of constipation. Experts are not entirely sure how this works. But, the belief is that probiotics might regulate bowel movements, push for a healthy gut, and alleviate related inflammation. 

• The role of gut microbiota 

Probiotics may control constipation by restoring balance in the gut’s bacteria assortment. Studies show that people with ongoing constipation often have less ‘good’ bacteria. They often have more ‘bad’ bacteria in their gut than others who don’t have constipation. If probiotics raise the levels of good bacteria, they can correct the imbalance. This may improve regular bowel motions. Thus, it’s not that probiotics cause constipation. But, they can alter the balance of gut bacteria. This may change the frequency and the form of your stools. 

Probiotic lactobacilli, when taken orally, may help reduce the risk of urinary tract infections (UTIs), bacterial vaginosis, and candidiasis. These beneficial bacteria work by maintaining a healthy balance of microorganisms in the body, potentially averting the overgrowth of harmful bacteria or yeast that cause these conditions. However, I recommend consulting a healthcare professional before starting probiotics.

Dr. Smita barode, BAMS

2. Factors that influence the effect of probiotics on constipation 

There is evidence that probiotics may provide relief to those fighting constipation. But, the relief can depend on several factors, which are described below. 

Types of probiotics 

There are tons of different kinds of probiotics. Each type has unique traits and health benefits. Two of the most researched strains are Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. These two have been studied a lot for their possible effects on constipation. 

• Lactobacillus 

Lactobacillus is a common type of bacteria. You can find it in the gut and in fermented foods. Some types of Lactobacillus strains may help relieve constipation. For example, Lactobacillus casei Shirota may make stools softer and more frequent. 

• Bifidobacterium 

Another common type of probiotic is Bifidobacterium. Some studies say that this strain may help a person with constipation. In fact, they’ve found that Bifidobacterium lactis may help make your bowel movements happen more often and ease constipation issues. 

3. Individual reactions to probiotics 

How people react to probiotics can change from one person to the next. What works for one person may not work for another. Your genes, the state of your gut, and what you eat can affect how well a probiotic strain works for you. 

4. Effects on various types of constipation 

Researchers have studied probiotics to see how they act on many kinds of constipation. This includes constipation related to being pregnant, being a child, having IBS, or taking certain medicines. How well probiotics work also depend upon the root causes of the condition. 

• Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) 

IBS is a condition that affects your gut. It can bring about constipation, along with other issues. Studies show that certain strains of probiotics may help those with IBS. They may help reduce symptoms, improve bowel habits, and raise the quality of life. 

• Childhood constipation 

Constipation can be common in children. There can be many reasons, such as diet, genes, and mental factors. Some studies show good results when probiotics are used to manage constipation in kids. It may help increase frequency of stools and improve stool form. 

• Pregnancy 

Pregnant women may face constipation due to shifts in hormones or changes in physical activity during pregnancy. Some research shows that taking probiotics while carrying a baby may help ease constipation. They may support healthy bowel movement rates and ease constipation-related symptoms. 

• Medication-induced constipation 

Some drugs, like opioids, iron pills, and drugs for depression, can trigger constipation. Research hints at probiotics helping relieve constipation caused by specific drugs. Probiotics may help by promoting regular bowel movements and improving gut function. 

Side effects of probiotics 

Probiotics are often safe for most people. Still, some people might face side effects. These are explained below. 

1. Unpleasant digestive symptoms 

Most people might face some discomfort when they start taking probiotics for the first time. This can include gas, bloating, or stomach cramps. But don’t worry, these issues usually go away in a couple of weeks as you continue to take the probiotics. 

2. Bloating 

Bloating is a term used to describe a feeling of fullness. It is a common side effect of probiotics. It can be uncomfortable, but it’s temporary. You should find it going away as your body gets used to the new bacteria. 

3. Gas 

Taking probiotics can also cause gas buildup. Like bloating, this side effect is also temporary. It should lessen with the continued use of probiotics. 

4. Headaches 

Certain foods rich in probiotics, like yogurt, sauerkraut, and kimchi, contain substances called amines. These amines are made during the fermentation process and can cause headaches in those who are sensitive to them. If your headaches persist while eating these foods, you might consider taking a supplement instead. 

• Types of amines 

The most common amines found in foods rich in probiotics are histamine, tyramine, tryptamine, and phenylethylamine. Each of these can potentially influence the central nervous system and cause headaches in those who are sensitive to them. 

• Sensitivity to amines in certain individuals 

Research shows that those who are sensitive to amines might experience headaches after eating foods rich in probiotics. Such people might consider taking supplements instead to avoid this unpleasant side effect. 

5. Increased histamine levels 

Some types of probiotic bacteria can produce a molecule called histamine. Histamine is released by your immune system when it faces a threat. This causes your blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable. This allows immune cells to quickly reach the affected area. This can bring about symptoms like itching, watering of the eyes, or difficulty breathing. 

• Histamine and gut inflammation 

As mentioned, probiotic food may produce histamine. An increase in histamine production can cause inflammation in the gut. This can worsen certain gastrointestinal disorders, such as IBS. This can be a bigger issue for those who have histamine intolerance. This means they can’t easily break down excess histamine. 

If you are intolerant to histamine, you need to avoid certain types of probiotics. They include Lactobacillus buchneri, Lactobacillus helveticus, Lactobacillus hilgardii, and Streptococcus thermophilus. Instead, opt for strains that are less likely to produce histamine. 

6. Negative reactions to certain ingredients 

There may be other ingredients in your probiotic food or pill that may affect the body.  

• Allergens 

Probiotic pills and foods can contain allergens such as dairy, egg, or soy. Those who are allergic to such substances should avoid products that contain those allergens. Instead, they should look for other sources of probiotics. 

• Prebiotic fibers 

Along with probiotics, some pills also have prebiotic fibers. These are plant fibers that can’t be broken down by the body. However, they do feed your probiotics. These fibers can cause gas and bloating in some people. If you are one of them, it might be better to choose a probiotic that doesn’t contain prebiotic fibers. 

Increased infection risks 

While probiotics are usually safe, there is a small risk of severe infections for certain groups of people. 

• Immunocompromised individuals 

Those with weakened immune systems are at a higher risk of catching an infection from probiotic bacteria. These people should have a discussion with a health professional before deciding to take probiotics. 

• Overgrowth of bacteria 

People who are chronically ill, those who’ve had recent surgery, or those who were hospitalized for a long time also face a higher risk. For them, there is a risk of having too many bacteria and related infections from using probiotics. Such people should talk about the pros and cons of taking probiotics with their health  professionals. 

Also Read: Constipation in Pregnancy: Causes and Research-Based Remedies

How to select and use probiotics safely? 

To make sure you get the most out of probiotics, it is vital to pick the right kind and use them correctly. 

1. Choosing the right probiotic strains 

With so many strains out there, it is key to pick the right one for your needs. Some strains may help with constipation more than others. So, look for supplements that contain such strains. You can check for names like Bifidobacterium lactis, Lactobacillus plantarum, Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus reuteri, or Bifidobacterium longum on the label. 

2. Starting with low doses 

It’s wise to start off with a small dose when you begin taking probiotics. Then, slowly move up to the full dose as per the label on the product. This gives your body time to get used to the new bacteria. It can also cut down on any possible side effects. 

3. Monitoring individual reactions 

As with any other supplement or drug, people react to probiotics in a range of ways. Keep an eye on how your body reacts to a certain probiotic. If you notice any major side effects or changes in your bowel habits, consider stopping the supplement. Talk to your healthcare provider for the next steps. 

It is always advised to consult your health care professional before incorporating any supplements into your daily routine.  

Conclusion 

In summary, probiotics may be a helpful option for those dealing with constipation. While they may not cause constipation outright, they may have an indirect effect on frequency or the form of your stools. However, probiotics do not affect everyone the same way. You should pick them based on what you need and your own health factors. Probiotics may work differently for different people, and they can bring about side effects as well. Always talk to a  healthcare provider before adding any supplement to your routine. 

Also Read: Is Kimchi Good for You? Analyzing the Research-Backed Health Benefits

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) 

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76. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Probiotic use in clinical practice: what are the risks? [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16762934 

77. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Lactobacillus bacteremia, clinical significance, and patient outcome, with special focus on probiotic L. rhamnosus GG [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14679449 

78. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Possible role of catheters in Saccharomyces boulardii fungemia [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10706174 

79. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Safety of probiotics that contain lactobacilli or bifidobacteria [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12627362 

80. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Lactobacillus bacteremia and endocarditis: review of 45 cases [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9402355 

81. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Probiotic prophylaxis in predicted severe acute pancreatitis: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18279948 

82. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). BioProject [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/PRJNA815745 

83. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Alterations in intestinal microbiota composition coincide with impaired intestinal morphology and dysfunctional ileal immune response in growing-finishing pigs under constant chronic heat stress [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=34983683 

84. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Alterations in intestinal microbiota composition coincide with impaired intestinal morphology and dysfunctional ileal immune response in growing-finishing pigs under constant chronic heat stress [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8728975 

85. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Consumption of Dietary Fiber from Different Sources during Pregnancy Alters Sow Gut Microbiota and Improves Performance and Reduces Inflammation in Sows and Piglets [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=33500330 

86. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Consumption of Dietary Fiber from Different Sources during Pregnancy Alters Sow Gut Microbiota and Improves Performance and Reduces Inflammation in Sows and Piglets [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7842364 

87. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Consumption of Dietary Fiber with Different Physicochemical Properties during Late Pregnancy Alters the Gut Microbiota and Relieves Constipation in Sow Model [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=35745241 

88. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Consumption of Dietary Fiber with Different Physicochemical Properties during Late Pregnancy Alters the Gut Microbiota and Relieves Constipation in Sow Model [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9229973 

89. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Feeding sows with high fibre diet around farrowing and early lactation: impact on intestinal activity, energy balance related parameters and litter performance [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=18725160 

90. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). L-Glutamine Supplementation Alleviates Constipation during Late Gestation of Mini Sows by Modifying the Microbiota Composition in Feces [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=28386552 

91. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). L-Glutamine Supplementation Alleviates Constipation during Late Gestation of Mini Sows by Modifying the Microbiota Composition in Feces [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5366184 

92. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Time-restricted feeding affects colonic nutrient substrates and modulates the diurnal fluctuation of microbiota in pigs [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=37275162 

93. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Time-restricted feeding affects colonic nutrient substrates and modulates the diurnal fluctuation of microbiota in pigs [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10235616 

94. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Spraying compound probiotics improves growth performance and immunity and modulates gut microbiota and blood metabolites of suckling piglets [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=36543996 

95. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). The effects of gut microbiota on metabolic outcomes in pregnant women and their offspring [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=30101246 

96. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Microbial and metabolic alterations in gut microbiota of sows during pregnancy and lactation [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=30653349 

97. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Dietary administration of probiotics to sows and/or their neonates improves the reproductive performance, incidence of post-weaning diarrhea and histopathological parameters in the intestine of weaned piglets [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=27018090 

98. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Probiotics or synbiotics addition to sows’ diets alters colonic microbiome composition and metabolome profiles of offspring pigs [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=36060747 

99. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Probiotics or synbiotics addition to sows’ diets alters colonic microbiome composition and metabolome profiles of offspring pigs [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9428521 

100. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). The Effect of <em>Bacillus licheniformis</em>-Fermented Products and Postpartum Dysgalactia Syndrome on Litter Performance Traits, Milk Composition, and Fecal Microbiota in Sows [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=33167360 

101. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). The Effect of Bacillus licheniformis -Fermented Products and Postpartum Dysgalactia Syndrome on Litter Performance Traits, Milk Composition, and Fecal Microbiota in Sows [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7694358 

102. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Early-Life Intervention Using Fecal Microbiota Combined with Probiotics Promotes Gut Microbiota Maturation, Regulates Immune System Development, and Alleviates Weaning Stress in Piglets [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=31941102 

103. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Early-Life Intervention Using Fecal Microbiota Combined with Probiotics Promotes Gut Microbiota Maturation, Regulates Immune System Development, and Alleviates Weaning Stress in Piglets [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7014131 

104. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). The Recent Trend in the Use of Multistrain Probiotics in Livestock Production: An Overview [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=34679827 

105. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). The Recent Trend in the Use of Multistrain Probiotics in Livestock Production: An Overview [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8532664 

106. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Health benefits of probiotics: are mixtures more effective than single strains? [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=21229254 

107. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Probiotic Bifidobacterium lactis Probio-M8 treated and prevented acute RTI, reduced antibiotic use and hospital stay in hospitalized young children: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=34825264 

108. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Adjunctive Probiotic <em>Lactobacillus rhamnosus</em> Probio-M9 Administration Enhances the Effect of Anti-PD-1 Antitumor Therapy <em>via</em> Restoring Antibiotic-Disrupted Gut Microbiota [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=34970262 

109. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Adjunctive Probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus Probio-M9 Administration Enhances the Effect of Anti-PD-1 Antitumor Therapy via Restoring Antibiotic-Disrupted Gut Microbiota [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8712698 

110. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Probiotics maintain the intestinal microbiome homeostasis of the sailors during a long sea voyage [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=32079472 

111. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Probiotics maintain the intestinal microbiome homeostasis of the sailors during a long sea voyage [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7524324 

112. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Modulation of gut mucosal microbiota as a mechanism of probiotics-based adjunctive therapy for ulcerative colitis [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=32969200 

113. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Modulation of gut mucosal microbiota as a mechanism of probiotics‐based adjunctive therapy for ulcerative colitis [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7533322 

114. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Adjunctive treatment with probiotics partially alleviates symptoms and reduces inflammation in patients with irritable bowel syndrome [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=33225399 

115. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Inulin and isomalto-oligosaccharide alleviate constipation and improve reproductive performance by modulating motility-related hormones, short-chain fatty acids, and feces microflora in pregnant sows [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=34487146 

116. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Inulin and isomalto-oligosaccharide alleviate constipation and improve reproductive performance by modulating motility-related hormones, short-chain fatty acids, and feces microflora in pregnant sows [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8493891 

117. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Effect of <em>Saccharomyces cerevisiae boulardii</em> on sows’ farrowing duration and reproductive performance, and weanling piglets’ performance and IgG concentration [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=35174339 

118. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Effect of Saccharomyces cerevisiae boulardii on sows’ farrowing duration and reproductive performance, and weanling piglets’ performance and IgG concentration [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8819323 

119. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Effects of Bacillus subtilis C-3102 on sow and progeny performance, fecal consistency, and fecal microbes during gestation, lactation, and nursery periods1,2 [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=31292631 

120. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Effects of Bacillus subtilis C-3102 on sow and progeny performance, fecal consistency, and fecal microbes during gestation, lactation, and nursery periods 1 , 2 [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6735905 

121. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Bacillus subtilis and Enterococcus faecium co-fermented feed regulates lactating sow’s performance, immune status and gut microbiota [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=33026173 

122. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Inflammatory pathways in female reproductive health and disease [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=19793840 

123. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Distal colonic transit is linked to gut microbiota diversity and microbial fermentation in humans with slow colonic transit [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=31869241 

124. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Mechanisms of Action of Probiotics and the Gastrointestinal Microbiota on Gut Motility and Constipation [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=28507013 

125. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Mechanisms of Action of Probiotics and the Gastrointestinal Microbiota on Gut Motility and Constipation 1, 2 [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5421123 

126. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Their Association with Signalling Pathways in Inflammation, Glucose and Lipid Metabolism [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=32887215 

127. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Their Association with Signalling Pathways in Inflammation, Glucose and Lipid Metabolism [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7503625 

128. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Crosstalk between the Gut Microbiome and Colonic Motility in Chronic Constipation: Potential Mechanisms and Microbiota Modulation [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=36145079 

129. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Crosstalk between the Gut Microbiome and Colonic Motility in Chronic Constipation: Potential Mechanisms and Microbiota Modulation [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9505360 

130. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Diversity, stability and resilience of the human gut microbiota [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=22972295 

131. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Diversity, stability and resilience of the human gut microbiota [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3577372 

132. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Human gut microbiota/microbiome in health and diseases: a review [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=33136284 

133. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Diversity is the question, not the answer [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=27636395 

134. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Immunological Tolerance and Function: Associations Between Intestinal Bacteria, Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Phages [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=30356736 

135. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Immunological Tolerance and Function: Associations Between Intestinal Bacteria, Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Phages [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6189397 

136. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Oral administration of Parabacteroides distasonis antigens attenuates experimental murine colitis through modulation of immunity and microbiota composition [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=21087444 

137. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Oral administration of Parabacteroides distasonis antigens attenuates experimental murine colitis through modulation of immunity and microbiota composition [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3043316 

138. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Effects of maternal 25-hydroxycholecalciferol during the last week of gestation and lactation on serum parameters, intestinal morphology and microbiota in suckling piglets [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=33198510 

139. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Arabinoxylan and Pectin Metabolism in Crohn’s Disease Microbiota: An <em>In Silico</em> Study [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=35806099 

140. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Arabinoxylan and Pectin Metabolism in Crohn’s Disease Microbiota: An In Silico Study [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9266297 

141. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Multi-Omics Analyses Show Disease, Diet, and Transcriptome Interactions With the Virome [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=34245762 

142. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Relationship Between Microbiota of the Colonic Mucosa vs Feces and Symptoms, Colonic Transit, and Methane Production in Female Patients With Chronic Constipation [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=26460205 

143. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Genomic variation landscape of the human gut microbiome [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=23222524 

144. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Probiotic consumption relieved human stress and anxiety symptoms possibly via modulating the neuroactive potential of the gut microbiota [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=33511258 

145. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Probiotic consumption relieved human stress and anxiety symptoms possibly via modulating the neuroactive potential of the gut microbiota [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7816019 

146. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Fecal Microbiota and Its Correlation With Fatty Acids and Free Amino Acids Metabolism in Piglets After a <em>Lactobacillus</em> Strain Oral Administration [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=31040835 

147. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Fecal Microbiota and Its Correlation With Fatty Acids and Free Amino Acids Metabolism in Piglets After a Lactobacillus Strain Oral Administration [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6476935 

148. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Administration of folate-producing bifidobacteria enhances folate status in Wistar rats [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=18029493 

149. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Effects of chenodeoxycholate and a bile acid sequestrant, colesevelam, on intestinal transit and bowel function [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=19879973 

150. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Chenodeoxycholate in females with irritable bowel syndrome-constipation: a pharmacodynamic and pharmacogenetic analysis [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=20691689 

151. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Growth, clinical chemistry and immune function in domestic piglets fed varying ratios of arachidonic acid and DHA [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=22040360 

152. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Restoration of barrier function in injured intestinal mucosa [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=17429041 

153. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Dietary long-chain PUFA enhance acute repair of ischemia-injured intestine of suckling pigs [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=22623387 

154. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Dietary Long-Chain PUFA Enhance Acute Repair of Ischemia-Injured Intestine of Suckling Pigs [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7289324 

155. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). The role of oxygen in lipid oxidation reactions: a review [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=25665172 

156. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). A mixture of milk and vegetable lipids in infant formula changes gut digestion, mucosal immunity and microbiota composition in neonatal piglets [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=27744547 

157. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). The abundance and variety of carbohydrate-active enzymes in the human gut microbiota [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=23748339 

158. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Characterization of Metagenome-Assembled Genomes and Carbohydrate-Degrading Genes in the Gut Microbiota of Tibetan Pig [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=33424798 

159. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Characterization of Metagenome-Assembled Genomes and Carbohydrate-Degrading Genes in the Gut Microbiota of Tibetan Pig [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7785962 

160. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Dietary fiber intervention on gut microbiota composition in healthy adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=29757343 

161. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Bifidobacterium lactis Probio-M8 Adjuvant Treatment Confers Added Benefits to Patients with Coronary Artery Disease via Target Modulation of the Gut-Heart/-Brain Axes [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=35343796 

162. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Bifidobacterium lactis Probio-M8 Adjuvant Treatment Confers Added Benefits to Patients with Coronary Artery Disease via Target Modulation of the Gut-Heart/-Brain Axes [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9040731 

163. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Low intake of vitamin B6 is associated with irritable bowel syndrome symptoms [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=21636013 

164. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Lutein protects HT-29 cells against Deoxynivalenol-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis: prevention of NF-kappaB nuclear localization and down regulation of NF-kappaB and Cyclo-Oxygenase-2 expression [Internet]. [cited 2023 Nov 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=20347963 

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