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Black Coffee for Weight Loss: Benefits, Best Time to Drink, and How to Make It 

Introduction

All of us need some morning fuel to start our day, don’t we? For some, it is tea and for others, it is coffee. But do you know that coffee is more than just a morning beverage? Particularly the black coffee? Black coffee has recently gained popularity among individuals trying to manage weight as it may have weight-management benefits¹. 

Black coffee may have several benefits that can support your weight management journey; however, it is essential to understand its effects and potential drawbacks. In this article, we will discuss aspects like black coffee benefits for weight loss, how to make it, and its side effects to help you make the right decisions. 

Is Black Coffee Good for Weight Loss?

Black coffee may be able to help with weight management, especially when combined with a healthy lifestyle. It contains bioactive compounds such as caffeine and trigonelline, which may improve body composition and metabolism in individuals who are overweight². Some studies indicate that unsweetened caffeinated or decaffeinated coffee is linked to less weight gain over time¹. Hence, the weight management effect of coffee is more prominent when it is plain and unsweetened. 

In short, black coffee for weight loss may support weight management when paired with appropriate lifestyle and diet strategies and is best planned by a nutritionist to achieve good results. 

Black Coffee Benefits for Weight Loss

Black coffee might help you support weight management through several mechanisms. Here are a few of them: 

1. Metabolism and Fat Burning 

Caffeine, which is one of the main components in coffee, helps stimulate the central nervous system and improve metabolic efficiency. This may help the body burn more energy even when you are at rest³. A study published by The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition suggests that coffee/caffeine increases the calorie and fat burn in both obese and lean people⁴. This is because caffeine helps the body produce more heat and release stored fat, which can be used by the body for energy. This might be helpful for people who are trying to reduce or manage body fat³. However, it is recommended to consult a healthcare professional before increasing your caffeine intake. 

2. Appetite Suppression 

Coffee might help reduce hunger by influencing the body’s hunger and fullness signals. It can reduce the hormones that make you hungry and enhance the signals to make you feel full, especially after a meal. It also slows down the release of sugar into the blood. Overall, although coffee might help reduce your appetite, its effects vary from person to person³.

3. Low in Calories 

Black coffee, when consumed without sugar, cream or milk, has very few calories⁵. This makes it an good replacement for high-calorie beverages like sweetened coffee, soft drinks, or packaged juice. Choosing coffee over such beverages helps with reducing unnecessary calorie intake. 

4. Boosts Exercise Performance 

Studies indicate that consuming a caffeinated drink, such as black coffee, before exercise might help you burn more fat during workouts. Along with increased fat utilisation, caffeine also improves oxygen use during moderate-intensity workouts, whether you have eaten or not. Additionally, it can also improve alertness and energy, which might help you move more or exercise longer with better focus¹.  

Note: Drinking coffee may cause stomach discomfort in some individuals⁵. Therefore, avoid drinking coffee on an empty stomach or take it with a small snack, such as biscuits or nuts, to avoid acid reflux. 

5. Blood Sugar Control 

Some short-term studies suggest that caffeinated coffee might help the body process blood sugar. In a small study involving obese men with higher fasting blood sugar levels, men who consumed caffeinated coffee showed better glucose control after meals compared to those who consumed decaffeinated coffee or no coffee at all. The study also showed a reduction in waist size in the caffeinated group, showing that coffee may help support metabolic health¹. Hence, coffee might help control blood sugar level, which in turn might help support fat metabolism and manage weight over time. 

How to Make Black Coffee for Weight Loss?

Now that you know the black coffee benefits for weight loss, it is also important to know how to make it to get the best out of it. Here is how to make black coffee for weight loss at home. 

• Boil water: Boil about 1 cup of fresh water. (Avoid using milk, as it can reduce the potential benefit). 
• Add coffee: Add 1 to 2 teaspoons of ground coffee (roasted and crushed) into your coffee maker. 
• Brew: Add boiled water over the coffee grounds; let it steep for 3-5 minutes. 
• Strain: After brewing, strain the coffee into a cup (let the coffee drip into the cup if you are using a filter). 
• Flavouring (optional): Add some cinnamon for taste if needed. Do not add sugar, sweetener, or cream, as they are high in calories and can reduce the benefits⁵ 

Enjoy your coffee once it is fully ready. Note that coffee alone cannot contribute to weight loss; you will need to combine it with proper exercise, diet, and lifestyle for the best results. 

Side Effects of Black Coffee

Although black coffee has many potential benefits, its excess consumption might cause several side effects. Following are some common side effects of black coffee: 

1. Anxiety

The caffeine in coffee stimulates the central nervous system, which in turn triggers the release of adrenaline (a hormone). This might make you feel anxious or increase the risk of anxiety if consumed in excess. Studies indicate that this is more likely to happen when caffeine intake is more than 400mg^1,6. 

2. Heart Issues

Although moderate coffee consumption is beneficial for the heart, its brewing method is very important. Boiled or unfiltered coffee might have excess diterpenes, which can increase blood cholesterol levels and that, in turn, can increase the risk of heart disease⁷. In addition, excess caffeine might also cause heart palpitations (a sensation of increased heart rate)⁵.

3. Gastrointestinal Issues

Since coffee is acidic in nature, excess coffee consumption might increase stomach acid production, causing gastric issues like acid reflux and peptic ulcers. This might lead to discomfort and long-term digestive issues³.

4. Sleep Issues

According to some studies, coffee might significantly interfere with sleep, reducing it by approximately 30-45 minutes¹. It might also cause insomnia-related symptoms like trouble falling asleep, frequent awakenings during the night, and feeling sleepy during the daytime⁸.

5. Dehydration

The excess consumption of coffee might cause dehydration as it has a diuretic effect. This means it can increase urine output, thus leading to fluid loss³.

Common Myths About Black Coffee and Weight Loss

Although black coffee may offer some benefits for weight management, it is surrounded by many myths and misconceptions. Here are a few common ones, along with the facts. 

1. Myth: Coffee alone is enough for weight loss. 

Fact: No, coffee alone cannot significantly reduce weight. It might help increase metabolism and suppress appetite³, but effective weight management needs a balanced diet with calorie control and regular physical activity. 

2. Myth: Consuming more coffee means more weight loss. 

Fact: This is not true. A moderate amount of coffee consumption might help you in managing weight, while excess coffee consumption is associated with several health issues like anxiety, gastric troubles, and sleep issues³.

3. Myth: Black coffee or caffeine works the same for everyone. 

Fact: This is false. Everybody processes caffeine differently; a moderate dose for one might be a high dose for someone else. Factors such as metabolism, body weight, and the use of several medicines might influence how caffeine affects an individual⁹.

4. Myth: Black coffee is effective at any time of the day. 

Fact: No, this is not true. Consuming coffee in the morning may be more beneficial because it won’t disrupt the sleep pattern and may help reduce inflammation that occurs earlier in the morning¹⁰. Consuming coffee late at night might interfere with your sleeping patterns; therefore, studies recommend drinking coffee at least 8 hours before you sleep¹. 

5. Myth: Decaffeinated coffee does not play any role in weight management. 

Fact: This is not true. Decaffeinated coffee, like caffeinated coffee, is linked with less weight gain, suggesting that it might help with weight management¹.

6. Myth: Black coffee can suppress appetite for a long time. 

Fact: No, black coffee might suppress your appetite only temporarily. This is because the caffeine in the coffee stimulates the hypothalamus, a part of the brain that regulates hunger, making you feel fuller for a short period³. 

Conclusion 

Black coffee might help you in your weight management journey by playing a role in improving functions like metabolism and appetite control. However, you can get better benefits from it when you combine it with a healthy lifestyle, regular exercise, and a proper diet. Do not forget that moderate intake of coffee is crucial, as excessive consumption may lead to serious side effects. It is best to consult a healthcare professional for personalised advice. 

Also Read: Jeera Water for Weight Loss: Benefits, How to Use & Best Ways to Drink It

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) 

References

1. Emadi RC, Kamangar F. Coffee’s Impact on Health and Well-Being. Nutrients [Internet]. 2025 Aug 5;17(15):2558–8. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12348139/ 

2. Cardero ÁF, Cinos JLS, Bravo L, Sarriá B. Consumption of a Coffee Rich in Phenolic Compounds May Improve the Body Composition of People with Overweight or Obesity: Preliminary Insights from a Randomized, Controlled and Blind Crossover Study. Nutrients [Internet]. 2024 Aug 26 [cited 2024 Sep 24];16(17):2848–8. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11397522/ 

3. Chien XY. The Relationship between Coffee and Weight Management. Theoretical and Natural Science [Internet]. 2024 Dec 26 [cited 2025 Mar 12];74(1):128–35. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/387450889 

4. Acheson KJ, Zahorska-Markiewicz B, Pittet P, Anantharaman K, Jéquier E. Caffeine and coffee: Their Influence on Metabolic Rate and Substrate Utilization in Normal Weight and Obese Individuals. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition [Internet]. 1980 May 1;33(5):989–97. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0002916523439044 

5. The Nutrition Source. Coffee [Internet]. The Nutrition Source. 2019. Available from: https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/food-features/coffee/ 

6. Liu C, Wang L, Zhang C, Hu Z, Tang J, Xue J, et al. Caffeine Intake and anxiety: a meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology [Internet]. 2024 Feb 1;15(1270246). Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10867825/ 

7. Buelna-Chontal M. Coffee: Fuel for Your Day or Foe for Your Arteries. Napolitano A, Allegra M, editors. Antioxidants [Internet]. 2024 Nov 27 [cited 2025 Feb 18];13(12):1455. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11672806/ 

8. Jee HJ, Lee SG, Bormate KJ, Jung YS. Effect of Caffeine Consumption on the Risk for Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders: Sex Differences in Human. Nutrients [Internet]. 2020 Oct 9;12(10):3080. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7601837/ 

9. Williamson L. Is Caffeine a Friend or foe? [Internet]. www.heart.org. 2022. Available from: https://www.heart.org/en/news/2022/08/08/is-caffeine-a-friend-or-foe 

10. When It Comes to the Health Benefits of coffee, Timing May Count [Internet]. NHLBI, NIH. 2025. Available from: https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/news/2025/when-it-comes-health-benefits-coffee-timing-may-count 

11. Antonio J, Newmire DE, Stout JR, Antonio B, Gibbons M, Lowery LM, et al. Common Questions and Misconceptions about Caffeine supplementation: What Does the Scientific Evidence Really show? Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition [Internet]. 2024 Mar 11;21(1). Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10930107/ 

Disclaimer: The information provided here is for educational/awareness purposes only and is not intended to be a substitute for medical treatment by a healthcare professional and should not be relied upon to diagnose or treat any medical condition. The reader should consult a registered medical practitioner to determine the appropriateness of the information and before consuming any medication. PharmEasy does not provide any guarantee or warranty (express or implied) regarding the accuracy, adequacy, completeness, legality, reliability or usefulness of the information; and disclaims any liability arising thereof. 

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Does Low Testosterone Cause Weight Gain?  

Introduction

Many men notice small but frustrating changes as they grow old. This may include a constant feeling of tiredness despite adequate rest, a drop in energy levels, reduced muscle strength, or unexpected weight gain (particularly around the abdomen)^1,2. But these changes are often overlooked (or not paid attention to) as a normal part of ageing or attributed solely to lifestyle factors.  

Testosterone levels are known to decline naturally with age, at an average rate of about 1% per year after 30 to 40 years³. In most men, this age-related decline does not result in a clinically significant disease, however, the condition may often go under-recognized even in cases where symptoms are more pronounced, mostly relating them to aging or lifestyle factors, while an underlying hormonal imbalance, specifically low testosterone (Low T) may play a significant role in these cases^1,2. 

Therefore, through this article, we aim to examine the causes and symptoms of low testosterone, its impact on weight gain, and discuss management tips, available treatment options, and some preventive strategies. 

What is Testosterone?

Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone (produced mainly by the testicles and small amounts by the adrenal glands)⁴. It plays a central role in the physiology of numerous organs and tissues, including reproductive organs, muscle, bone, and the central nervous system. It works by binding to androgen receptors in target tissues and influences much more than sexual health alone⁵. 

In men, testosterone alone and after converting to estradiol is essential for^4,5: 

• Sexual development 
• Muscle strength 
• Bone density 
• Fat distribution 
• Energy levels 
• Mood regulation 

It is also responsible for primary sexual development before birth and during puberty, as well as secondary male characteristics such as facial hair growth and voice maturity⁴. 

What Causes Low Testosterone in Men?

Low testosterone could result from several medical and lifestyle related factors. Common causes include: 

• Age-related decline: Testosterone levels naturally begin to decline gradually in men starting around 30 to 40 years of age. This is a normal part of ageing and should not be considered a medical problem⁴. 
• Medication-related effects: Certain medicines (such as chemotherapy agents, opioids, anabolic steroids, gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists, glucocorticoids, and ketoconazole) can sometimes suppress testosterone production^4,10.  
• Testicular damage or disease: Injury to the testes, testicular cancer, infections, or surgical removal can impair testosterone production^3,11. 
• Disorders of the hypothalamic–pituitary axis: Conditions affecting the hypothalamus or pituitary gland can disrupt hormonal signalling required for testosterone production^4,5. 
• Thyroid dysfunction: Hypothyroidism (low thyroid function) may be associated with reduced testosterone levels⁴. 
• Obesity: Excess body fat can lower testosterone levels by increasing estrogen conversion and reducing hormone availability^2,4. In obese individuals, measurement of free testosterone may be necessary for accurate assessment⁴. 
• Chronic illnesses and systemic conditions: Long-standing diseases, infections, or medical treatments can negatively affect testosterone production^4,12. 

Low Testosterone Symptoms in Men

Some men with low testosterone may not experience any noticeable symptoms, while others may develop a range of physical, sexual, and psychological changes. Common low testosterone symptoms in men include⁴: 

• Reduced sex drive 
• Difficulty achieving/maintaining an erection 
• Increased body fat 
• Depressive mood or low motivation 
• Difficulty with concentration and memory 
• Sleep disturbances, including insomnia 
• Low sperm count  
• Decreased muscle mass and strength 
• Loss of bone density 

It is important to note that some of these changes can occur as part of normal ageing. For example, a mild decline in sexual interest with age is common. However, a complete loss of interest in sex is not considered normal. Additionally, similar symptoms may arise from other medical conditions, such as diabetes or high blood pressure, or from certain medications. Therefore, if any of these symptoms are persistent or troubling, it is advisable to consult a doctor for proper evaluation. 

The Connection Between Low Testosterone and Weight Gain

Testosterone plays an important role in regulating body composition, energy balance, and metabolic health in men. This raises the common question: Does low testosterone cause weight gain?  

Evidence shows that low testosterone levels are frequently observed in men with obesity, and the decline often becomes more common as body weight increases^13,14.  

Low testosterone causes a decline in energy levels and physical inactivity that may lead to weight gain in men. Moreover, it affects blood sugar control, insulin utilisation and fat metabolism causing a hormonal shift that further contributes to fat accumulation¹³. The excess adipose tissue releases metabolic and inflammatory mediators that interfere with normal hypothalamic–pituitary–testicular (HPT) axis function (the hormonal control system that regulates testosterone production in men), creating a self-reinforcing cycle². 

The disruption in hypothalamic signalling causes a reduction in the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), leading to decreased secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the pituitary gland, which ultimately leads to lowered testosterone production by the testes. Low testosterone further leads to weight gain by promoting increased fat storage and reducing lean muscle mass^13,14. 

1. Rise in Estrogen

At the same time, excess adipose tissue enhances the conversion of testosterone into estrogen (estradiol). Elevated estrogen levels suppress GnRH release from the hypothalamus, further reducing LH (major impact) and FSH (minimal impact) secretion and aggravating testosterone deficiency. 

2. Insulin Resistance

Additionally, obesity-related insulin resistance lowers levels of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), the protein responsible for transporting testosterone in the bloodstream. Reduced SHBG results in lower circulating total testosterone levels¹⁵

3. Leptin Resistance

Further, leptin, a hormone produced by adipose tissue, is often elevated in obesity but accompanied by reduced hypothalamic sensitivity due to leptin resistance. Under normal conditions, leptin has a stimulatory effect on the HPT axis and supports testosterone synthesis. However, in obesity, leptin resistance disrupts this signalling, so elevated leptin levels fail to enhance testosterone production and may further contribute to suppression of the reproductive axis¹⁶. 

4. Inflammatory Cytokines

Obesity is linked to higher levels of inflammation in the body, including increased TNF-alpha and IL-6, as well as oxidative stress. These inflammatory substances can interfere with the normal functioning of Leydig cells in the testes, which are responsible for producing testosterone. As a result, the testes respond less effectively to LH. Inflammation can also disrupt the HPT axis, further lowering testosterone levels¹⁶. 

Together, these factors contribute to the hypogonadal–obesity cycle, in which excess body fat lowers testosterone levels and testosterone deficiency accelerates fat accumulation. This cycle contributes to metabolic dysfunction and makes sustained weight management more challenging in affected men. 

Tips to Manage Weight with Low Testosterone

Weight reduction plays an important role in improving testosterone levels in men with low testosterone and obesity. The close link between testosterone and weight loss has been well documented, with reductions in body fat and body mass index (BMI) associated with significant increases in testosterone levels. Some practical tips include: 

• Strength training: Resistance exercise (3 times a week) supports healthy testosterone levels and helps build muscle and reduce fat mass, thereby helping with weight management¹⁷.  
• Increase protein intake: High-protein foods help preserve muscle during weight loss and improve satiety. However, very high-protein diets (> 3.4 g/kg/day) might negatively impact testosterone levels, so moderation is important¹⁸. 
• Low carbohydrate intake: Low-carbohydrate or Mediterranean-style diets rich in whole foods, healthy fats, and lean proteins that support hormonal balance¹⁶. 
• Cut down on sugar: Reduce refined sugar. This improves insulin sensitivity and weight control, which may indirectly affect testosterone¹⁹. 
• Stay physically active daily: Regular movement beyond structured workouts can also help maintain long-term weight control. 

Note: Weight loss can help improve testosterone levels in men with obesity-related secondary (functional) hypogonadism, but it is unlikely to be effective in cases of primary testicular failure or genetically determined hypogonadism. 

Treatments for Low Testosterone

Treatment for low testosterone aims to restore testosterone levels to the normal range and relieve symptoms. Please note that testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) is recommended only in men with confirmed hypogonadism and related symptoms, after appropriate evaluation. The main goal of TRT is to alleviate symptoms while maintaining testosterone in the mid-normal physiological range and avoiding supraphysiological levels. 

Several formulations, such as the following, are available²⁰: 

• Topical gels and creams: These are applied directly on the skin. They provide steady testosterone levels but require precautions to avoid skin-to-skin transfer. 
• Transdermal patches: These patches deliver continuous hormone levels. However, skin irritation may occur, so precautions should be taken. 
• Injectable testosterone: These injections are given intramuscularly. They are effective and affordable but may cause fluctuations in hormone levels, so they should never be taken without consulting a doctor first.  
• Subcutaneous pellets: These are implanted under the skin. They may provide long-term testosterone release, but precautions should be taken. 
• Nasal or buccal formulations: These come under non-invasive options and may require multiple doses. However, medical advice should be taken before starting. 

Important Considerations

TRT may suppress the body’s natural testosterone production and sperm formation, and can worsen acne, untreated sleep apnoea or increase red blood cell levels. Therefore, regular monitoring of testosterone levels, haematocrit, and prostate health is generally recommended by the doctor and should not be used for men desiring fertility. Keep in mind that TRT is not recommended solely for age-related testosterone decline or obesity without low testosterone symptoms in men²⁰. 

How to Prevent Low Testosterone

Maintaining healthy testosterone levels depends largely on lifestyle and metabolic health. So, adopting the following habits may help reduce the risk of low testosterone and support overall hormonal balance. 

• Maintain a healthy weight: Excess body fat, particularly abdominal fat, lowers testosterone levels and increases its conversion to estrogen^2,16. So, achieving and maintaining a healthy body weight helps preserve normal testosterone production. 
• Exercise regularly: Physical activity, especially strength and resistance training, supports testosterone production by increasing muscle mass and reducing fat. Therefore, aim to include strength training at least 3 times per week, along with regular physical movements^16,17. 
• Eat a balanced, nutrient-rich diet: Diets rich in lean protein, healthy fats, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables support hormonal health. Additionally, limiting sugar, refined carbohydrates, and ultra-processed foods helps prevent insulin resistance, which is linked to low testosterone^16,21. 
• Manage stress effectively: Chronic stress raises cortisol levels, which may suppress testosterone production²². Thus, stress-reduction practices such as meditation, deep breathing, yoga, or regular physical activity might help maintain hormonal balance. 
• Prioritise quality sleep: Poor or insufficient sleep may significantly lower testosterone levels¹⁶. Therefore, aim for 6 to 8 hours of uninterrupted sleep per night to support normal hormone secretion. 
• Limit alcohol and avoid smoking: Excessive alcohol intake and smoking can impair testosterone production and even testicular function²³. Thus, people who are heavy smokers or drinkers should understand that moderation/avoidance can support long-term hormonal health. 
• Address medical conditions early: Conditions such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and sleep apnea are associated with low testosterone^16,22. Therefore, early diagnosis and management may help avoid hormonal decline. 

Note: Age-related decline in testosterone cannot be prevented. Lifestyle interventions may improve functional or obesity-related suppression of testosterone but do not prevent normal physiological ageing or primary hypogonadism. Also, exercise improves body composition and insulin sensitivity, but sustained increases in basal testosterone levels may need additional support under medical guidance. 

Also Read: Is It Possible to Increase Penis Size? Myths vs. Medical Facts

When to See a Doctor?

Low testosterone can sometimes be managed through lifestyle changes, but medical evaluation is important when symptoms are persistent or affecting daily life. You should consider seeing a doctor if you experience²⁴: 

• Ongoing fatigue or low energy that does not improve with rest or lifestyle changes 
• Reduced sex drive or erectile difficulties 
• Unexplained weight gain (especially increased abdominal fat) 
• Mood changes, such as low motivation, irritability, or depression 
• Poor concentration or memory problems 
• Reduced bone strength or frequent fractures 

Note: Men should also seek medical advice if symptoms occur at a younger age, worsen rapidly, or are accompanied by conditions such as obesity, diabetes, or sleep apnea. A doctor can evaluate symptoms, order blood tests to measure testosterone levels, identify underlying causes, and recommend appropriate treatment or lifestyle interventions.  

Conclusion

Low testosterone and obesity are closely interconnected through a complex, bidirectional relationship that adversely affects metabolic and reproductive health in men. Excess body fat suppresses testosterone production through multiple mechanisms, including disruption of the hypothalamic–pituitary–testicular axis, increased conversion of testosterone to estrogen, reduced sex hormone-binding globulin levels, and hormonal dysregulation associated with insulin resistance and leptin resistance. In turn, testosterone deficiency promotes fat accumulation and loss of lean muscle mass, reinforcing the hypogonadal–obesity cycle. 

The connection between testosterone and weight loss explains why many men struggle to lose weight when testosterone levels are low. Evidence consistently demonstrates that weight loss, particularly reductions in body fat and BMI, may lead to significant improvements in testosterone levels. To achieve this, lifestyle interventions such as regular exercise (especially resistance training), balanced nutrition, adequate sleep, and stress management remain the cornerstone of prevention and management. While testosterone replacement therapy may be beneficial in selected individuals, these approaches require careful patient selection and medical supervision. 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

References

1. Tsujimura A. The Relationship between Testosterone Deficiency and Men’s Health. World J Mens Health. 2013 Aug;31(2):126-35. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3770847/ 
2. Fui MN, Dupuis P, Grossmann M. Lowered testosterone in male obesity: mechanisms, morbidity and management. Asian J Androl. 2014 Mar-Apr;16(2):223-31. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3955331/ 
3. Shores MM. The implications of low testosterone on mortality in men. Curr Sex Health Rep. 2014 Dec 1;6(4):235-243. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4323275/ 
4. MedlinePlus. Could you have low testosterone? [Internet]. National Library of Medicine (US); [cited 2025 Dec 16]. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000722.htm 
5. Nassar GN, Leslie SW. Physiology, testosterone [Internet]. StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; [cited 2025 Dec 16]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526128/ 
6. Marudhai S, Patel M, Valaiyaduppu Subas S, Ghani MR, Busa V, Dardeir A, Cancarevic I. Long-term Opioids Linked to Hypogonadism and the Role of Testosterone Supplementation Therapy. Cureus. 2020 Oct 5;12(10):e10813. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7645309/ 
7. Hislop MS, Ratanjee BD, Soule SG, Marais AD. Effects of anabolic-androgenic steroid use or gonadal testosterone suppression on serum leptin concentration in men. Eur J Endocrinol. 1999 Jul;141(1):40-6. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10407221/ 
8. Raja T, Sud R, Addla S, Sarkar KK, Sridhar PS, Talreja V, Jain M, Patil K. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists in prostate cancer: a comparative review of efficacy and safety. Indian J Cancer. 2022 Mar;59(Suppl 1):S142–S159. Available from: https://journals.lww.com/indianjcancer/fulltext/2022/59001/gonadotropin_releasing_hormone_agonists_in.12.aspx 
9. Mohammed AG, Mansour AA, Ahmed JH. Effect of exogenous glucocorticoids on male hypogonadism. Biomed Rep. 2020 Sep;13(3):12. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7391295/ 
10. Grosso DS, Boyden TW, Pamenter RW, Johnson DG, Stevens DA, Galgiani JN. Ketoconazole inhibition of testicular secretion of testosterone and displacement of steroid hormones from serum transport proteins. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1983 Feb;23(2):207-12. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6301363/ 
11. Sharma A, Minhas S, Dhillo WS, Jayasena CN. Male infertility due to testicular disorders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2021 Jan 23;106(2):e442-e459. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7823320/ 
12. Zitzmann M. Testosterone deficiency and chronic kidney disease. J Clin Transl Endocrinol. 2024 Aug 14;37:100365. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11381468/ 
13. Kelly DM, Jones TH. Testosterone and obesity. Obes Rev. 2015 Jul;16(7):581-606. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25982085/ 
14. Muir CA, Wittert GA, Handelsman DJ. Approach to the Patient: Low Testosterone Concentrations in Men With Obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2025 Aug 7;110(9):e3125-e3130. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12342380/ 
15. George BT, Jhancy M, Dube R, Kar SS, Annamma LM. The Molecular Basis of Male Infertility in Obesity: A Literature Review. Int J Mol Sci. 2023 Dec 22;25(1):179. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779000/ 
16. Okobi OE, Khoury P, De la Vega RJ, Figueroa RS, Desai D, Mangiliman BDA, et al. Impact of Weight Loss on Testosterone Levels: A Review of BMI and Testosterone. Cureus. 2024 Dec 21;16(12):e76139. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11745839/ 
17. Moradi F. Changes of Serum Adiponectin and Testosterone Concentrations Following Twelve Weeks Resistance Training in Obese Young Men. Asian J Sports Med. 2015 Dec;6(4):e23808. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4691303/ 
18. Whittaker J. High-protein diets and testosterone. Nutr Health. 2023 Jun;29(2):185-191. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10114259/ 
19. Davis JN, Ventura EE, Shaibi GQ, Weigensberg MJ, Spruijt-Metz D, Watanabe RM, Goran MI. Reduction in added sugar intake and improvement in insulin secretion in overweight latina adolescents. Metab Syndr Relat Disord. 2007 Jun;5(2):183-93. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2847394/ 
20. Rivas AM, Mulkey Z, Lado-Abeal J, Yarbrough S. Diagnosing and managing low serum testosterone. Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent). 2014 Oct;27(4):321-4. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4255853/ 
21. World Health Organization. Could you have low testosterone? [Internet]. WHO; [cited 2025 Dec 16]. Available from: https://www.who.int/initiatives/behealthy/healthy-diet 
22. Khan SU, Jannat S, Shaukat H, Unab S, Tanzeela, Akram M, et al. Stress Induced Cortisol Release Depresses The Secretion of Testosterone in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Clin Med Insights Endocrinol Diabetes. 2023 Jan 3;16:11795514221145841. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9830570/ 
23. Koh K, Kim SS, Kim JS, Jung JG, Yoon SJ, Suh WY, et al. Relationship between Alcohol Consumption and Testosterone Deficiency according to Facial Flushes among Middle-Aged and Older Korean Men. Korean J Fam Med. 2022 Nov;43(6):381-387. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9708857/ 
24. Morales A, Bebb RA, Manjoo P, Assimakopoulos P, Axler J, Collier C, et al. Canadian Men’s Health Foundation Multidisciplinary Guidelines Task Force on Testosterone Deficiency. Diagnosis and management of testosterone deficiency syndrome in men: clinical practice guideline. CMAJ. 2015 Dec 8;187(18):1369-1377. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4674408/ 
25. Traish AM. Testosterone and weight loss: the evidence. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2014 Oct;21(5):313-22. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4154787/ 
26. Cuhaci N, Polat SB, Evranos B, Ersoy R, Cakir B. Gynecomastia: Clinical evaluation and management. Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 2014 Mar;18(2):150-8. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/artihttps://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3987263/cles/PMC3987263/ 
27. Ho CH, Sood T, Zito PM. Androgenetic alopecia [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; [cited 2025 Dec 17]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430924/ 
28. Griggs RC, Kingston W, Jozefowicz RF, Herr BE, Forbes G, Halliday D. Effect of testosterone on muscle mass and muscle protein synthesis. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1989 Jan;66(1):498-503. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2917954/ 

Disclaimer: The information provided here is for educational/awareness purposes only and is not intended to be a substitute for medical treatment by a healthcare professional and should not be relied upon to diagnose or treat any medical condition. The reader should consult a registered medical practitioner to determine the appropriateness of the information and before consuming any medication. PharmEasy does not provide any guarantee or warranty (express or implied) regarding the accuracy, adequacy, completeness, legality, reliability or usefulness of the information; and disclaims any liability arising thereof.

Links and product recommendations in the information provided here are advertisements of third-party products available on the website. PharmEasy does not make any representation on the accuracy or suitability of such products/services. Advertisements do not influence the editorial decisions or content. The information in this blog is subject to change without notice. The authors and administrators reserve the right to modify, add, or remove content without notification. It is your responsibility to review this disclaimer regularly for any changes.

IVF (In Vitro Fertilization): What is It, Procedure, Steps, Side Effects & More 

Introduction

Assisted reproductive technology (ART) has advanced rapidly over the past few decades, transforming the landscape of infertility treatment worldwide. India, in particular, has witnessed one of the fastest-growing ART sectors, with a significant rise in the number of fertility centres and ART cycles performed each year¹.  

ART includes a range of medical techniques designed to help couples conceive by manipulating reproductive cells outside the human body². Among these techniques, in vitro fertilization (IVF) stands out as the most widely used and well-established method². And over the years, IVF has evolved with improvements in laboratory technology, culture systems, and embryology practices, leading to higher success rates and safer procedures³. 

Through this article, we aim to explore what is IVF, how the procedure works, the detailed steps involved, its indications and benefits. We will also cover IVF side effects, potential risks, and what individuals or couples can expect throughout the process. 

What is IVF?

IVF is a specialised fertility treatment in which a woman’s egg and a man’s sperm are combined/fertilized outside the body. This is typically achieved in a controlled laboratory environment⁴.  

Under normal circumstances, an egg and sperm meet inside the woman’s fallopian tube after intercourse. And if fertilization (fusion of egg and sperm) occurs, the resulting embryo travels to the uterus and implants in the uterine lining. This leads to a natural conception/pregnancy.  

However, when this process does not occur on its own, IVF provides an alternative path to conception⁴. The term in vitro literally means “in glass,” referring to fertilization that occurs outside the natural reproductive system⁵. 

IVF is one of the most widely practised forms of ART. The IVF process involves retrieving mature eggs from the ovaries, fertilizing them with sperm in a laboratory to create embryos, and then either²: 

• transferring one or more of these embryos into the woman’s uterus, or 
• freezing (cryopreserving) the embryos for future use 

Benefits of IVF

IVF offers several important benefits that help individuals and couples overcome infertility and improve their chances of having a healthy pregnancy. Benefits of IVF include²: 

• Aids couples with unexplained fertility issues who may have no other effective option^2,4. 
• Helps achieve pregnancy when natural conception is not possible (e.g., blocked tubes, low sperm count and blockage)⁴. 
• Provides flexible options, meaning you can use your own eggs/sperm, or donor eggs/sperm/embryos when needed². 
• Allows embryo or egg freezing, helping people preserve fertility for the future (useful before cancer treatment or delaying pregnancy)². 
• Enables genetic testing of embryos, reducing the risk of inherited diseases and some chromosomal problems⁴. 
• Higher success rates compared to many other fertility treatments⁶. 

The IVF Procedure Step by Step

IVF involves a series of carefully planned steps that help eggs and sperm come together outside the body. This is followed by placing a healthy embryo into the uterus. The following outlines the IVF procedure step by step⁴: 

Step 1: Ovarian Stimulation (Super-ovulation)

• The woman is given fertility medications to help her ovaries produce multiple mature eggs (instead of the single egg normally released each month). 
• During this phase, doctors monitor the ovaries closely through regular ultrasounds and blood tests to track hormone levels and egg development. 

Step 2: Egg Retrieval

• Once the eggs are ready, they are collected through a minor procedure called follicular aspiration.  
• It is usually done under light sedation. 
• Using ultrasound guidance, a thin needle is passed through the vagina into the ovaries to gently suction out the eggs from each follicle. 
• The process may cause mild cramping, which typically resolves within a day. 
• If a woman cannot produce eggs, donor eggs may be used. 

Step 3: Fertilization (Insemination)

• The retrieved eggs are mixed with the man’s sperm in the laboratory. 
• The sperm naturally fertilizes the egg a few hours after being combined. 
• If there is a low chance of natural fertilization (due to male infertility), a technique called intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) may be used, where a single sperm is directly injected into the egg. 
• Many fertility centres perform ICSI routinely for better fertilization outcomes, but this is only possible if the cause of infertility is related to the male partner. 

Step 4: Embryo Culture

• After fertilization, the developing embryos are kept in a controlled environment and monitored for proper growth. 
• By day 3 to 5, a healthy embryo will have divided into multiple cells. 
• For couples at risk of genetic disorders, preimplantation genetic testing (PGT) may be offered to test embryos before transfer. This helps identify embryos free of specific genetic conditions. 

Step 5: Embryo Transfer

• 3 to 5 days after fertilization, one or more healthy embryos are gently placed into the woman’s uterus. 
• The procedure is quick and usually painless. 
• A thin catheter is used to guide the embryo through the cervix into the womb. 
• If the embryo implants in the uterine lining, pregnancy begins. 
• Any remaining healthy embryos may be frozen for future use. 

Medications and Procedures Used

Several medications are used during an IVF cycle to help the ovaries produce eggs, control hormone levels, and prepare the uterus for embryo transfer. The main types include: 

• Ovarian Stimulation Medications: These medicines help the ovaries produce multiple mature eggs instead of just one. Common examples²: 
  • Exogenous gonadotropins [follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)] 
  • Selective oestrogen receptor modulators (clomiphene citrate) 
  • Aromatase inhibitors (letrozole) 
• Medications to Prevent Premature Ovulation: These drugs stop the body from releasing eggs too early. Common options²: 
  • Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists 
  • GnRH antagonists (GnRHa) 
• Trigger Shot (Final Maturation Injection): Once the eggs are developed, a “trigger shot” is given to help the eggs mature fully before retrieval. Examples²: 
  • hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) 
• Progesterone Support: After egg retrieval and embryo transfer, progesterone is given to prepare the uterine lining and support early pregnancy². Forms include⁷: 
  • Vaginal gel 
  • Vaginal capsules/tablets 

Preparation for IVF

Before starting an IVF cycle, individuals undergo several important evaluations to ensure the treatment is safe, appropriate, and has the best chance of success. These assessments help identify any factors that may affect egg quality, sperm health, or embryo implantation. 

1. Assessment of Ovarian Reserve (Female Partner)

Tests are done to understand how many good-quality eggs the woman may be able to produce. Common tests include²: 

• Day-3 FSH and oestradiol (E2) 
• Anti mullerian hormone (AMH)
• Antral follicle count (AFC) using ultrasound 

If the results show poor ovarian reserve, IVF is still possible, but the woman may need to consider options such as donor eggs. 

2. Semen Analysis (Male Partner)

The male partner provides a semen sample to assess²: 

• Sperm count 
• Motility (movement) 
• Morphology (shape) 

These results help determine if standard IVF is suitable or if ICSI (Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection) is needed. 

3. Evaluation of the Uterine Cavity

Imaging tests help identify structural issues that may interfere with embryo implantation, such as²: 

• Fibroids 
• Polyps 
• Adhesions 
• Uterine septum 

Addressing these problems beforehand improves the chances of a successful pregnancy. 

4. Infectious Disease Screening

Both partners are screened for infections such as²: 

• HIV 
• Hepatitis B & C 
• Syphilis 

This ensures patient safety and prevents transmission during treatment. 

5. Coordinated Care and Emotional Support

IVF requires a multidisciplinary team, including doctors, nurses, embryologists, counsellors, and lab staff². 

• Good communication and strong emotional support are essential, as the IVF process can be stressful.  
• Providing patient-centred care and clear guidance helps individuals feel supported and improves their overall IVF experience. 

Important: Alcohol and smoking may negatively influence ART/IVF outcomes⁸. Therefore, individuals undergoing ART should follow a balanced diet and avoid alcohol and smoking to support better treatment outcomes. 

IVF Treatments

Different approaches may be used during an IVF cycle depending on the couple’s fertility issues, age, and medical history. The most commonly used treatment options include: 

• Standard IVF (Conventional IVF): In this method, multiple sperm are mixed with each mature egg in the laboratory and fertilization occurs naturally⁴. 
• ICSI: A single healthy sperm is directly injected into each mature egg to achieve fertilization⁴. 
• Use of Donor Eggs or Donor Sperm: Donor eggs or sperm may be used when one partner cannot produce healthy gametes². 
• Frozen Embryo Transfer (FET): Previously created and frozen embryos are thawed and transferred in a later cycle⁹. Frozen embryo transfer success rates are equal to the fresh transfers, and no additional abnormalities occur. 
• PGT: Embryos are tested for chromosomal abnormalities or specific genetic diseases before transfer^2,4. 
• IVF with Donor Embryos: Embryos donated by other couples are transferred to the recipient’s uterus². The 2021 ART Act in India oversees that ART clinics and donor banks to ensure safe, ethical, and transparent practices¹⁰. 
• Gestational Surrogacy: An embryo created through IVF is transferred to a surrogate who carries the pregnancy¹¹. 

What to Expect During and After the Procedure

IVF can bring both emotional and physical challenges, but support is available throughout the process. Your team of doctors, counsellors, and fertility support groups can help you navigate this journey. 

• Counselling: Counselling provides a confidential space to discuss your feelings, worries, and expectations. It is recommended for everyone undergoing IVF, and clinics generally offer access to a counsellor before, during, and after treatment¹². 
• After the Procedure: Post embryo transfer, light rest may be advised for the remainder of the day. Full bed rest is not usually required unless there is a risk of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS). Most women can return to normal activities the following day⁴. You may be advised to avoid heavy exercise and intercourse until the pregnancy test. 
• Progesterone Support: Daily progesterone (injections or pills) may be required for 8 to 10 weeks after embryo transfer. Some women may continue progesterone supplementation for 8 to 12 weeks if pregnancy occurs⁴. This should only be considered if advised by a doctor. 
• Pregnancy Test: A blood test to check for pregnancy is done 12 to 14 days after the embryo transfer⁴.

Joining support groups and connecting with others going through similar experiences can be reassuring during this phase¹². 

IVF Side Effects

Women taking fertility medicines may experience⁴: 

• Bloating 
• Abdominal discomfort 
• Mood swings 
• Headaches 
• Bruising at injection sites 

These symptoms are usually temporary and related to the hormonal changes during treatment. 

Risks and Complications

IVF is generally safe, but like all medical treatments, it carries certain physical, emotional, and financial risks. These may vary from mild to more serious. 

• Risks from Egg Retrieval Procedure: There may be some risks associated with retrieving eggs. These include⁴: 
  • Reaction to anaesthesia 
  • Bleeding or infection 
  • Injury to nearby organs (bowel or bladder) 
• Multiple Pregnancy: Transferring more than one embryo increases the risk of twins or higher-order multiples^4,12. 
  • This increases the chances of premature delivery, low birth weight, and various health complications for both the mother and the babies.  
• Ectopic Pregnancy: A fertilized egg may implant outside the uterus (usually in the fallopian tube). This needs urgent medical care¹². 
• Ovarian torsion: Rare risk of ovarian torsion, particularly in patients with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) who may develop enlarged ovaries during stimulation¹³. 
• OHSS (rare but serious): This occurs when the ovaries over-respond to fertility medications. However, with modern techniques/medications, this risk is much less prevalent. Symptoms may include⁴: 
  • Severe bloating and abdominal pain 
  • Rapid weight gain (over 10 pounds in 3 to 5 days) 
  • Decreased urination 
  • Nausea or vomiting 
  • Shortness of breath 

Mild cases may improve with rest, but severe cases may require draining fluid or hospitalisation. 

• Emotional and Financial Stress: IVF requires significant time, emotional energy, and financial resources. Many couples may experience stress, anxiety, or depression during treatment. In addition to this, treatment costs are also high, and insurance coverage may be limited⁴. 

Success Rates and Results

IVF success varies widely and depends on several factors, such as maternal age, egg quality, embryo type (fresh or frozen), and the underlying cause of infertility. Although effective, the chance of pregnancy from a single fresh embryo transfer remains modest. 

For women (under 35), general success rates are: 

• Successful implantation with fresh embryos ranges from 30 and 45% per cycle¹⁴. 
• Success increases cumulatively across multiple cycles, reaching 60% after 3 cycles¹⁵. 

Note: Success rates may decline with advancing maternal age, especially after 40 years¹⁶.  

Also Read: What Is Ovulation? Understanding The Ovulation Process and Symptoms 

When to See a Doctor?

After IVF, it is important to watch for symptoms that may indicate complications. Contact your doctor immediately if you experience^4,12: 

• Fever above 100.5°F (38°C) 
• Pelvic pain 
• Heavy vaginal bleeding 
• Blood in the urine 
• Feeling faint 
• Coughing up blood 

Urgent medical help may be required in the following cases¹²: 

• Difficulty breathing 
• Chest pain or pain in the upper back 
• Severe thirst with reduced urination 
• Swelling anywhere in the body 
• Sharp lower abdominal pain on one side 
• Pain at the tip of the shoulder 

These symptoms may indicate severe OHSS or an ectopic pregnancy and require urgent medical attention. 

Also Read: 6 Essential Vitamins For Women That You Need To Know About

Conclusion

IVF is a widely used and effective fertility treatment, but its success depends on many factors, including age, egg and embryo quality, and underlying medical conditions. The process involves several steps, requires careful preparation, and may come with emotional, physical, and financial challenges. Thus, understanding the procedure, potential risks, and expected outcomes can help individuals make informed decisions. 

As you consider or undergo IVF, it is important to maintain realistic expectations, seek strong emotional support, and work closely with an experienced medical team. Many individuals and couples can achieve a successful and rewarding outcome with the right guidance and care. 

Also Read: Best Guide to Breast Pumping For New Mothers 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

References

1. Malhotra N, Shah D, Pai R, Pai HD, Bankar M. Assisted reproductive technology in India: A 3 year retrospective data analysis. J Hum Reprod Sci. 2013 Oct;6(4):235-40. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3963305/ 
2. Choe J, Shanks AL. In vitro fertilization [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; [cited 2025 Dec 05]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562266/ 
3. Eskew AM, Jungheim ES. A History of Developments to Improve in vitro Fertilization. Mo Med. 2017 May-Jun;114(3):156-159. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6140213/ 
4. MedlinePlus. In vitro fertilization (IVF) [Internet]. U.S. National Library of Medicine; [cited 2025 Dec 05]. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/007279.htm 
5. Taffs L, Kerridge I, Lipworth W. The silent world of assisted reproduction: A qualitative account of communication between doctors and patients undergoing in vitro fertilisation in Australia. Health Expect. 2023 Dec;26(6):2340-2348. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10632647/ 
6. Bano T, Shaheen MA, Shabbir NA, Jadoon AK, Ameen S, Atta M, Noor S, Khattak MI, S A. Clinical Outcomes of In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) Versus Intrauterine Insemination (IUI) in Infertile Patients: Toward Evidence-Based Fertility Planning. Cureus. 2025 Sep 17;17(9):e92511. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12535426/ 
7. MedlinePlus. Progesterone Vaginal [Internet]. U.S. National Library of Medicine; [cited 2025 Dec 03]. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a623013.html 
8. Mínguez-Alarcón L, Chavarro JE, Gaskins AJ. Caffeine, alcohol, smoking, and reproductive outcomes among couples undergoing assisted reproductive technology treatments. Fertil Steril. 2018 Sep;110(4):587-592. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11002791/ 
9. Tocariu R, Niculae LE, Niculae AȘ, Carp-Velișcu A, Brătilă E. Fresh versus Frozen Embryo Transfer in In Vitro Fertilization/Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection Cycles: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Neonatal Outcomes. Medicina (Kaunas). 2024 Aug 22;60(8):1373. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11356234/ 
10. Jamwal VDS, Yadav AK. The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act, 2021: A Step in the Right Direction. Indian J Community Med. 2023 Jan-Feb;48(1):4-6. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10112746/ 
11. Patel NH, Jadeja YD, Bhadarka HK, Patel MN, Patel NH, Sodagar NR. Insight into Different Aspects of Surrogacy Practices. J Hum Reprod Sci. 2018 Jul-Sep;11(3):212-218. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6262674/ 
12. National Health Service. IVF: Tests and treatments [Internet]. NHS; [cited 2025 Dec 05]. Available from: https://www.nhs.uk/tests-and-treatments/ivf/ 
13. Krishnan S, Kaur H, Bali J, Rao K. Ovarian torsion in infertility management – Missing the diagnosis means losing the ovary: A high price to pay. J Hum Reprod Sci. 2011 Jan;4(1):39-42. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3136068/ 
14. Levin D, Jun SH, Dahan MH. Predicting pregnancy in women undergoing in-vitro fertilization with basal serum follicle stimulating hormone levels between 10.0 and 11.9 IU/L. J Turk Ger Gynecol Assoc. 2015 Mar 1;16(1):5-10. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4358314/ 
15. Stern JE, Brown MB, Luke B, Wantman E, Lederman A, Missmer SA, Hornstein MD. Calculating cumulative live-birth rates from linked cycles of assisted reproductive technology (ART): data from the Massachusetts SART CORS. Fertil Steril. 2010 Sep;94(4):1334-1340. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0015028209012448 
16. Tan TY, Lau SK, Loh SF, Tan HH. Female ageing and reproductive outcome in assisted reproduction cycles. Singapore Med J. 2014 Jun;55(6):305-9. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4294057/ 
17. Gill P, Whitehead C, Werner M, Seli E. Best quality vs. sex selection – an analysis of embryo selection preferences for patients undergoing preimplantation genetic testing for aneuploidy over a 10-year period. J Assist Reprod Genet. 2024 Aug;41(8):2211-2216. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11339188/ 
18. Ghoshal S. India cracks down on sex-determination tests. CMAJ. 2002 Mar 19;166(6):800. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC99483/ 
19. Borini A, Bafaro G, Violini F, Bianchi L, Casadio V, Flamigni C. Pregnancies in postmenopausal women over 50 years old in an oocyte donation program. Fertil Steril. 1995 Feb;63(2):258-61. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7843427/ 
20. Namavar Jahromi B MD, Parsanezhad ME MD, Shomali Z MD, Bakhshai P MD, Alborzi M MD, et al. Ovarian Hyperstimulation Syndrome: A Narrative Review of Its Pathophysiology, Risk Factors, Prevention, Classification, and Management. Iran J Med Sci. 2018 May;43(3):248-260. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5993897/ 
21. Malacova E, Kemp A, Hart R, Jama-Alol K, Preen DB. Effectiveness of in vitro fertilization in women with previous tubal sterilization. Contraception. 2015 Mar;91(3):240-4. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25499586/ 
22. Kroener L, Dumesic D, Al-Safi Z. Use of fertility medications and cancer risk: a review and update. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2017 Aug;29(4):195-201. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5551049/ 
23. Lu YH, Wang N, Jin F. Long-term follow-up of children conceived through assisted reproductive technology. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B. 2013 May;14(5):359-71. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3650450/ 

Disclaimer: The information provided here is for educational/awareness purposes only and is not intended to be a substitute for medical treatment by a healthcare professional and should not be relied upon to diagnose or treat any medical condition. The reader should consult a registered medical practitioner to determine the appropriateness of the information and before consuming any medication. PharmEasy does not provide any guarantee or warranty (express or implied) regarding the accuracy, adequacy, completeness, legality, reliability or usefulness of the information; and disclaims any liability arising thereof.

Links and product recommendations in the information provided here are advertisements of third-party products available on the website. PharmEasy does not make any representation on the accuracy or suitability of such products/services. Advertisements do not influence the editorial decisions or content. The information in this blog is subject to change without notice. The authors and

How to Increase Your Metabolism Naturally 

Introduction

Have you ever wondered why the same foods you ate effortlessly in your teenage years now seem to “sit” in your stomach a little longer, or why losing even a couple of kilos feels harder than it used to? You are not alone! 

Metabolism (the process your body uses to convert food into energy) naturally slows down with age as the body loses muscle mass and other tissues^1,2. In fact, it is believed that the energy you spend in your resting state (known as resting energy expenditure (REE)) begins to decline by 1 to 2% per decade as you grow older².

Adding to this, the load of busy schedules, stress, irregular eating habits, and long hours of sitting! So, it is no surprise that many people feel their digestion and energy levels are not what they used to be¹. 

The good news? A slow or sluggish metabolism is not permanent. In this article, we will answer your queries, such as how to boost metabolism, improve digestion, and feel more energetic with simple, science-backed lifestyle changes. 

What is Metabolism?

Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions happening inside our body cells that keeps us alive. These reactions help our body convert the food we eat into energy, support vital functions, and allow growth, repair, movement, and overall development. Metabolism also involves processes that don’t directly produce energy, such as creating DNA, hormones, and other vital components needed for cell function³. 

All of these metabolic processes rely on enzymes that are special proteins that help carry out chemical reactions in the body through two processes (catabolism and anabolism). Catabolism produces energy and basic building blocks, while anabolism uses that energy to create new molecules³. 

A key part of metabolism is your metabolic rate, which refers to how quickly your body produces and uses energy³. The basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the minimum amount of energy your body needs to function at rest, just to keep your heart beating, lungs working, and cells alive⁴. 

Note: Everyone’s BMR is different because it is influenced by many factors, including age, sex, genetics, body composition, physical activity, and certain medical conditions³. This is the reason why some people naturally burn energy faster than others.

What Makes Your Metabolism Slow?

A slow metabolism does not happen overnight. It is usually the result of several lifestyle, biological, and health-related factors. Here are some of the most common reasons your metabolic rate may decline:

• Ageing: As we age, lean body mass (which includes muscle, bones, organs, and connective tissue) naturally decreases. And because muscle burns more calories than fat, this shift leads to a lower BMR^1,5. 
• Genetics: Your genes influence how fast or slow your metabolism naturally is. Some people are born with a higher metabolic rate, while others burn energy more slowly (simply due to genetic differences)⁵.
• Loss of Muscle Mass: Sedentary habits, long working hours, or lack of strength training lead to reduced muscle mass. Less muscle means fewer calories burned at rest⁶.
• Hormonal Changes: Imbalances in thyroid hormones, insulin, or cortisol can slow down metabolism and affect how the body uses energy³.
• Skipping Meals or Chronic Dieting: Long-term fasting with severe calorie restriction makes your body conserve energy. This may cause your metabolic rate to drop⁷. This is a survival mechanism from the body’s perspective.  
• Lack of Physical Activity: The more inactive you are, the fewer calories your body burns¹. Over time, this leads to reduced metabolic efficiency. 
• Poor Sleep: Irregular or insufficient sleep disrupts hormones that regulate hunger and energy usage⁸. This slows down how efficiently the body burns calories. 
• High Stress Levels: Chronic stress increases cortisol, which can encourage fat storage (especially around the belly)⁹. This may negatively impact metabolic health. 
• Certain Medical Conditions: Hypothyroidism, insulin resistance, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), and chronic illnesses like sepsis or cancer can significantly slow metabolism^10,11. 

Foods That Boost Metabolism Naturally

If you are wondering how to improve metabolism with natural food items, we are here to help. Certain everyday foods, such as the following, contain natural compounds that can gently boost your metabolism:

1. Coffee (caffeine)

Caffeine (a key ingredient in coffee) temporarily raises REE. This helps your body use more fat when it needs energy. However, actual fat oxidation is modest and varies based on exercise and individual metabolism. Also, caffeine does not reliably promote significant fat loss on its own, and its effects may diminish with habitual use. Most adults should also avoid excessive intake, with around 400 mg/day considered a common safe upper limit. 

2. Green tea (catechins and caffeine)

Green tea contains catechins that combine with caffeine and slightly increase fat oxidation. This helps your body burn slightly more calories and fat. However, these benefits are small (and observed in short-term studies) and very high-dose extracts can upset the stomach.

3. Chilli peppers (capsaicin and capsinoids)

Capsaicin (the compound that makes chillies spicy) can slightly increase heat production and calorie burn. Even small amounts added to meals may help. However, higher doses may be uncomfortably spicy for many, so moderation is the key. 

4. Dark chocolate (cocoa in high percentage)

Cocoa contains natural stimulants and antioxidants (such as caffeine and theobromine) that may help your body burn a few extra calories. But try and choose high-cocoa sugarfree dark chocolate and keep portions small because of excess calories.

5. Ginger (gingerols and shogaols)

Ginger may support metabolism by promoting thermogenesis (heat production) and the breakdown of fat. This suggests it may provide mild metabolic benefits, making it a healthy addition to a balanced diet. However, human evidence is limited, so ginger should not be taken in excess.

6. Apple Cider Vinegar (acetic acid and polyphenols)

Apple cider vinegar may influence fat metabolism, showing potential benefits on body weight, satiety, and fat oxidation. However, more research is needed before definitive conclusions can be drawn, so it should be taken in moderation.

7. Cinnamon (cinnamaldehyde)

Cinnamaldehyde, a compound that gives flavour to cinnamon, may slightly raise energy expenditure and help control appetite. Small dietary amounts are generally safe (prefer Ceylon cinnamon to avoid excess coumarin from cassia varieties)¹².

8. Protein rich foods

Protein-rich foods play a key role in supporting metabolism because protein has a higher thermic effect of food, meaning the body uses more energy to digest and metabolise it compared to carbohydrates or fats. Protein also helps preserve lean muscle mass, which is important for maintaining resting metabolic rate during weight loss. So, including foods such as eggs, fish, lean meat, poultry, dairy, pulses, legumes, and soy products can help support metabolic function as part of a balanced, calorie-controlled diet¹³.

9. Broccoli and Other Cruciferous Veggies (glucosinolates)

These vegetables contain unique plant compounds that may support fat burning and overall metabolic health. However, human data is limited, but these veggies are nutrient-dense and safe to include regularly¹².

10. Water

Adequate water intake supports metabolism by increasing energy expenditure and promoting fat oxidation. Studies show that drinking water can temporarily boost metabolic rate through heat generation, as the body expends energy to warm and process the fluid¹⁴. Thus, regular water consumption can aid metabolic function and support weight management as part of a healthy diet. 

Note: These metabolism boosting foods can gently support your metabolism, but they work best when eaten in moderation. Overconsuming caffeine or spicy foods that increase metabolism can cause discomfort, and relying too heavily on any single food will not lead to major changes. 

Best Exercises to Improve Metabolism

Thinking about how to increase metabolism with exercise? Let us walk you through it.  

Just a few smart exercise choices, such as the ones below, can make a big difference in how your body burns energy:

1. Brisk Walking

Brisk walking increases your heart rate, boosts calorie burn, and helps reduce fat. Plus, it is safe for all fitness levels and easy to maintain long term¹⁵.

• How to do it: Walk at a pace where you can talk but cannot sing (moderate intensity)¹⁶. 
• Duration: 30 to 45 minutes a day, at least 5 days a week (around 150 minutes/week). 

2. Jogging or Light Running

Jogging as well as running raises your energy expenditure modestly, which keeps your metabolism elevated for a few hours (even after the workout). It improves insulin sensitivity and supports cardiovascular health¹⁷.

• How to do it: Start with slow jogging and gradually increase speed. You can alternate between jogging and walking if you are a beginner. 
• Duration: 20 to 30 minutes, 3 to 4 days per week¹⁵.

3. High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)

HIIT creates a strong afterburn effect, meaning your body continues burning calories even after the session ends. It improves fat oxidation, endurance, and metabolic markers such as blood pressure and insulin resistance^13,16.

• How to do it: 8 
  • 4 × 4 HIIT: Four rounds of 4 minutes of intense exercise and 4 minutes rest. 
  • 8 × 2 HIIT: Eight rounds of 2 minutes of intense exercise and 2 minutes rest. 
• Duration: 10 to 20 minutes, 2 to 3 days per week. Suitable for physically fit or clinically stable individuals¹⁵.

4. Strength or Resistance Training (Weights or Bodyweight Exercises)

Strength training builds muscle and muscle burns more calories than fat (even at rest). So, increasing lean mass can help raise BMR slightly. Strength training also improves insulin sensitivity, glucose metabolism, and the ability to perform daily physical activities, which is essential for long-term metabolic health¹⁵.

• How to do it: Perform exercises wearing weights (based on your strength and comfort), such as dumbbells. Aim for 8 to 12 repetitions with 1 to 3 sets of each exercise¹⁵.
• Duration: 2 to 3 sessions per week, 30 to 45 minutes each.  

5. Cycling (Outdoor or Indoor)

Cycling is a great aerobic workout that increases calorie burn and improves lower-body muscle strength^15,19.

• How to do it: Ride at a steady pace or include intervals (with a speed of 15 km/h or more)¹⁵.
• Duration: 30 to 45 minutes, 3 to 5 times a week.

6. Swimming

Swimming engages almost every major muscle group while providing a full-body calorie burn. It improves cardiorespiratory fitness and enhances flexibility²⁰.

• How to do it: Swim continuous laps or alternate strokes (freestyle, breaststroke, backstroke)²⁰.
• Duration: 30 to 40 minutes, 3 times per week. 

Lifestyle Habits That Support a Healthy Metabolism

Your daily habits play a major role in how efficiently your body uses energy, making lifestyle choices key to maintaining a healthy metabolism. Thus, it is important to adopt healthy lifestyle habits, such as the following, to support a well-functioning metabolism and improve overall health. 

• Maintain a healthy body weight (aim for a BMI under 25 kg/m²) to support efficient metabolic and cardiovascular function²¹. 

• Follow a balanced, nutrient-dense diet that includes vegetables, fruits, legumes, whole grains, and fish²¹.

• Limit refined carbohydrates, high-sodium foods, saturated fats, and trans fats to reduce metabolic stress and chronic disease risk²¹.
• Adopt consistent meal timing, such as eating at regular intervals and avoiding late-night, high-calorie meals. If appropriate, consider time-restricted eating within a 10 to 12-hour daily window to support circadian rhythms and improve metabolic regulation²². 
• Avoid following very low-calorie diets, as they may slow your metabolism and make long-term regulation harder⁷. 
• Maintain adequate hydration, as proper fluid intake supports digestion, nutrient transport, appetite regulation, and overall metabolic efficiency²³. 
• Engage in regular physical activity, including at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise per week, to enhance energy expenditure and improve survival outcomes²¹.
• Avoid smoking and limit alcohol intake, as both negatively impact metabolic and cardiovascular health²¹.
• Prioritise adequate, restful sleep to support hormonal balance, appetite regulation, and weight control²¹.

Conclusion

Improving metabolism is not about quick fixes but about creating sustainable, health-promoting habits.  

Metabolism boosting foods such as green tea, coffee, chilli peppers, and other options provide small but meaningful boosts in energy expenditure and help regulate appetite and boost metabolism. Building on this foundation, regular physical activity plays an equally essential role. Complementary habits such as consistent meal timing, quality sleep, avoiding smoking, and limiting alcohol further strengthen metabolic balance. 

Together, these nutrition and activity strategies support long-term metabolic efficiency, reduce the risk of chronic disease, and promote overall health and vitality. 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

References

1. MedlinePlus. Can you boost your metabolism? [Internet]. U.S. National Library of Medicine; [cited 2025 Dec 9]. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000893.htm 
2. Geisler C, Braun W, Pourhassan M, Schweitzer L, Glüer CC, Bosy-Westphal A, Müller MJ. Age-Dependent Changes in Resting Energy Expenditure (REE): Insights from Detailed Body Composition Analysis in Normal and Overweight Healthy Caucasians. Nutrients. 2016 Jun 1;8(6):322. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4924163/ 
3. Sánchez López de Nava A, Raja A. Physiology, Metabolism [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; [cited 2025 Dec 9]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK546690/ 
4. Yang S, Tian C, Yang F, Chen Q, Geng R, Liu C, Wu X, Lam WK. Cardiorespiratory function, resting metabolic rate and heart rate variability in coal miners exposed to hypobaric hypoxia in highland workplace. PeerJ. 2022 Aug 30;10:e13899. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9438770/ 
5. Weight Management: State of the Science and Opportunities for Military Programs. Chapter 3, Factors That Influence Body Weight [Internet]. Institute of Medicine (US) Subcommittee on Military Weight Management; [cited 2025 Dec 9]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK221834/ 
6. MedlinePlus. Health risks of an inactive lifestyle [Internet]. U.S. National Library of Medicine; [cited 2025 Dec 9]. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/healthrisksofaninactivelifestyle.html 
7. Most J, Redman LM. Impact of calorie restriction on energy metabolism in humans. Exp Gerontol. 2020 May;133:110875. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9036397/ 
8. Papatriantafyllou E, Efthymiou D, Zoumbaneas E, Popescu CA, Vassilopoulou E. Sleep Deprivation: Effects on Weight Loss and Weight Loss Maintenance. Nutrients. 2022 Apr 8;14(8):1549. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9031614/ 
9. van der Valk ES, Savas M, van Rossum EFC. Stress and Obesity: Are There More Susceptible Individuals? Curr Obes Rep. 2018 Jun;7(2):193-203. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958156/ 
10. Kowalczyk K, Radosz P, Barański K, Pluta D, Kowalczyk D, Franik G, Madej P. The Influence of Treated and Untreated Subclinical Hypothyroidism on Metabolic Profile in Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. Int J Endocrinol. 2021 Nov 29;2021:8427150. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8648474/ 
11. Pacheco-Navarro AE, Rogers AJ. The Metabolomics of Critical Illness. Handb Exp Pharmacol. 2023;277:367-384. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10031764/ 
12. Bo S, Fadda M, Fedele D, Pellegrini M, Ghigo E, Pellegrini N. A Critical Review on the Role of Food and Nutrition in the Energy Balance. Nutrients. 2020 Apr 22;12(4):1161. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7231187/ 
13. Pesta DH, Samuel VT. A high-protein diet for reducing body fat: mechanisms and possible caveats. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2014 Nov 19;11(1):53. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4258944/ 
14. Vij VA, Joshi AS. Effect of ‘water induced thermogenesis’ on body weight, body mass index and body composition of overweight subjects. J Clin Diagn Res. 2013 Sep;7(9):1894-6. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3809630/ 
15. Chomiuk T, Niezgoda N, Mamcarz A, Śliż D. Physical activity in metabolic syndrome. Front Physiol. 2024 Feb 19;15:1365761. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10910017/ 
16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Measuring physical activity intensity [Internet]. CDC; [cited 2025 Dec 9]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/physical-activity/basics/measuring/index.html 
17. Kutac P, Bunc V, Buzga M, Krajcigr M, Sigmund M. The effect of regular running on body weight and fat tissue of individuals aged 18 to 65. J Physiol Anthropol. 2023 Nov 30;42(1):28. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10690982/ 
18. Lee MC, Chung YC, Thenaka PC, Wang YW, Lin YL, Kan NW. Effects of different HIIT protocols on exercise performance, metabolic adaptation, and fat loss in middle-aged and older adults with overweight. Int J Med Sci. 2024 Jun 24;21(9):1689-1700. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11241097/ 
19. Chavarrias M, Carlos-Vivas J, Collado-Mateo D, Pérez-Gómez J. Health Benefits of Indoor Cycling: A Systematic Review. Medicina (Kaunas). 2019 Aug 8;55(8):452. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6722762/ 
20. Lee BA, Oh DJ. Effect of regular swimming exercise on the physical composition, strength, and blood lipid of middle-aged women. J Exerc Rehabil. 2015 Oct 30;11(5):266-71. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4625655/ 
21. Swarup S, Ahmed I, Grigorova Y, et al. Metabolic Syndrome [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; [cited 2025 Dec 9]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459248/ 
22. Reytor-González C, Simancas-Racines D, Román-Galeano NM, Annunziata G, Galasso M, Zambrano-Villacres R, et al. Chrononutrition and Energy Balance: How Meal Timing and Circadian Rhythms Shape Weight Regulation and Metabolic Health. Nutrients. 2025 Jun 27;17(13):2135. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12252119/ 
23. Thornton SN. Increased Hydration Can Be Associated with Weight Loss. Front Nutr. 2016 Jun 10;3:18. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4901052/ 
24. Andriessen C, Fealy CE, Veelen A, van Beek SMM, Roumans KHM, Connell NJ, Mevenkamp J, Moonen-Kornips E, Havekes B, Schrauwen-Hinderling VB, Hoeks J, Schrauwen P. Three weeks of time-restricted eating improves glucose homeostasis in adults with type 2 diabetes but does not improve insulin sensitivity: a randomised crossover trial. Diabetologia. 2022 Oct;65(10):1710-1720. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9477920/ 
25. Del Vecchio A, Casolo A, Negro F, Scorcelletti M, Bazzucchi I, Enoka R, et al. The increase in muscle force after 4 weeks of strength training is mediated by adaptations in motor unit recruitment and rate coding. J Physiol. 2019 Apr;597(7):1873-1887. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6441907/ 
26. MedlinePlus. Basic Metabolic Panel (BMP) [Internet]. U.S. National Library of Medicine; [cited 2025 Dec 9]. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/basic-metabolic-panel-bmp/ 
27. MedlinePlus. Comprehensive Metabolic Panel (CMP) [Internet]. U.S. National Library of Medicine; [cited 2025 Dec 9]. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/comprehensive-metabolic-panel-cmp/ 

Medohar Guggulu: Uses, Benefits, Side Effects & More

Introduction

Medohar Guggulu, a classic ayurvedic formulation, is based on the traditional use of guggul (an oleogum resin) that is obtained from the Commiphora mukul tree^1,2.

Medohara in Sanskrit means ‘fat-eliminating’ and in Ayurveda, Medohar Guggulu has been used to manage a wide range of metabolic and inflammatory conditions^1,3. Modern research identifies guggulsterone as one of the major bioactive constituents of guggul, which supports the growing relevance of guggul-based formulations in contemporary health care².

And with increasing interest in plant-based and mechanism-driven therapies, Medohar Guggulu remains a well-known classical formulation that continues to be explored for its potential benefits, active constituents, and mechanisms of action. Therefore, through this article, we aim to explore scientifically backed evidence for Medohar Guggulu uses, benefits, side effects, and more.

What is Medohar Guggulu?

Medohar Guggulu is a traditional Ayurvedic formulation that contains Shuddha Guggulu (purified Guggulu) as its base, which is combined with other synergistic herbs. These may include
1. Sunthi (dry ginger)
2. Pippali (long pepper)
3. Marich (black pepper)
4. Chitraka (leadwort)
5. Haritaki (chebulic myrobalan)
6. Vibhitaki (beleric myrobalan)
7. Amalaki (Indian gooseberry)
8. Musta (nutgrass)
9. Vaividanga (embelia).

This herbal blend containing guggul is traditionally crafted to support balanced metabolism and healthy fat processing in the body⁴.

According to Ayurveda principles, descriptions and traditional beliefs, Medohara Guggulu acts through several mechanisms⁴:

• Deepana: support digestive capacity
• Paachana: aids metabolic transformation
• Kleda-Meda Shoshaka: helps reduce excess fluid and adipose tissue
• Srotovishodhaka: supports cleansing of the metabolic channels
• Lekhana: reduces accumulated adipose tissue

Through these combined traditional actions, Medohara Guggulu is used in Ayurveda to support metabolic balance and healthy processing of lipids. However, clinical evidence confirming these effects and benefits is still limited.

Nutritional Value of Medohar Guggulu

Although Medohara Guggulu is primarily valued for its metabolic and lipid-modulating actions, an understanding of the nutritional and techno-functional properties of its key constituent, which is guggul (Commiphora mukul gum), will help provide insight into its broader relevance as a functional ingredient.

A recent analytical study investigating the nutritional profile of C. mukul gum powder reported the following⁵:

According to this study, the gum exhibits a bulk density of 0.63 g/cm³, which indicates good compressibility and ease of incorporation into various formulations. It also possesses notable phytochemical richness, containing 6.91 mg GAE/g of total phenolics and 1.68 mg QE/g of total flavonoids, both contributing to its antioxidant potential.

Together, these characteristics position C. mukul gum as a nutritionally valuable and bioactive component, reinforcing Medohara Guggulu’s uses in obesity and metabolic disorders.

Medohar Guggulu Benefits

Medohar Guggul demonstrates several key advantages for metabolic and systemic well-being by combining traditional Ayurvedic principles with modern biochemical insights. Common Medohar Guggulu benefits include:

1. Supports Healthy Weight Management

Medohar Guggulu helps improve digestion, boost metabolism, break down fat, and improve insulin function^4,6. In a study on 58 obese adults, those taking Medohar Guggul with diet and exercise lost more weight than those on lifestyle changes alone, especially people weighing over 90 kg⁷. This suggests it may enhance weight reduction efforts in heavier individuals.

2. Provides Relief from Joint Pain

Medohar Guggulu shows anti-inflammatory properties which may help ease joint discomfort in osteoarthritis patients. A study showed that guggul extract may facilitate improvement in osteoarthritis of the knee by reducing knee pain, stiffness and enhancing mobility⁸.

3. Supports Heart Health and Healthy Cholesterol Levels

Guggulsterone, the active compound in guggul, may help lower cholesterol. It does so by improving how the liver removes cholesterol and by reducing inflammation¹. This supports healthier lipid levels and overall cardiovascular wellness.

4. Helps with Nerve Pain

Guggulipid has shown benefits in reducing nerve-related pain in animal studies by easing burning sensations and sensitivity⁹. These effects may be due to guggulipid’s action on nerve inflammation. This suggests it could help support the management of neuropathic pain.

5. Provides Diabetic Support

Guggul (guggulsterone) may help support diabetes management. It helps to reduce high blood glucose levels by improving glucose tolerance and supporting better insulin function, suggesting it’s potential as adjunct in diabetes management¹⁰.

6. Boosts Immune Health

Due to the presence of bioactive compounds like phenolics and flavonoids, Guggul may help regulate inflammatory mediators and support immune health. This helps to balance the body’s immune response¹¹.

7. Aids Thyroid Function

Guggulsterone may help support healthy thyroid function. It can increase thyroid hormone activity and boost metabolic processes (as seen in animal models)¹². This points towards its potential support to manage hypothyroid symptoms

8. Shows early Anti-Cancer Potential

Lab studies indicate that guggulsterone may slow the growth of cancer cells and help harmful cells self-destruct¹³. While more human research is needed, early evidence suggests guggulsterone may have protective, anti-tumour benefits.

While initial studies have shown positive results, more high-quality human research is needed to confirm the above-mentioned Medohar Guggulu benefits.

Note: Medohar Guggulu is an Ayurvedic formulation that may offer supportive health benefits, but it should never replace modern medical treatment for conditions like cancer, nerve disorders, diabetes, or heart disease.

How to Use Medohar Guggulu?

Medohar Guggulu is traditionally taken in tablet or powder (churna) form, usually under the guidance of an Ayurvedic physician. The general approach focuses on supporting digestion, fat metabolism, and overall balance of Kapha and Vata.

Below mentioned are typical usage guidelines (general Ayurvedic practice):

• Usually taken after meals (to support digestion)⁴.
• Commonly taken with warm water (as advised by an Ayurvedic doctor) to enhance absorption and fat-metabolising effects⁴.

Lifestyle and Dietary Recommendations

As per Ayurvedic practice, certain foods and habits are said to support Medohar Guggulu’s benefits. These include⁴:

• Prefer light, easily digestible meals.
• Follow a high-fibre diet including whole grains, fresh vegetables, and fruits.
• Choose a low-fat diet.
• Include Kapha-balancing foods with bitter, astringent, and mildly pungent tastes.
• Use digestive spices like Trikatu in moderation to boost metabolism.
• Drink warm water regularly to aid digestion and reduce Kapha.
• Practice moderate, consistent physical activity (Vyayama).

Foods and habits to avoid

• Avoid heavy, oily, and fried foods that slow digestion.
• Limit sweets and sugar-rich items.
• Reduce excess intake of ghee, butter, and fatty foods.
• Do not overeat or skip meals irregularly.
• Avoid daytime sleeping (divaswapna), which increases Kapha.
• Avoid alcohol and smoking.
• Minimise a sedentary lifestyle and long periods of inactivity.

Medohar Guggulu Side Effects

While Medohar Guggulu is generally well-tolerated when taken in recommended doses, modern clinical and toxicological studies show that some individuals may experience mild to moderate side effects. Possible Medohar Guggulu side effects include:

1. Digestive Discomfort

The most common side effects reported include stomach upset, loose stools, belching, and hiccups. These were noted in human studies of guggul resin and extracts and not directly with Medohar Guggulu¹⁴.

2. Skin Rashes

Higher doses may occasionally cause skin reactions such as redness or itching in some individuals^14,15.

3. Rare Liver Related Effects

Hepatotoxicity has been documented in case reports following use of concentrated guggul extracts^14,16. While uncommon, liver-related adverse events have been described and should prompt immediate medical review.

4. Potential Thyroid Effects

Animal studies show that guggul might stimulate thyroid hormone activity^11,14. This may cause adverse symptoms in sensitive individuals.

Precautions to Take with Medohar Guggulu

Like with any natural product, if you consider including Medohar Guggulu in your routine diet, the following should be kept in mind:

• Limit your intake to moderate amounts. Speak with a doctor or dietitian to determine how much is appropriate for your individual needs.
• Discuss with your gynaecologist before taking Medohar Guggulu if you are pregnant or lactating.
• Seek medical advice if you have any health conditions or are taking medications, especially if you have liver issues, thyroid disorders, bleeding disorders, or if you are scheduled for surgery, as it may not be suitable in these situations^16,17.

Also Read: Tejpatta (Bay Leaf): Benefits, Side Effects, Nutritional Value & More

Interaction with Other Drugs

Guggul and its active compound, guggulsterone, influence liver enzymes, cholesterol pathways, and hormone receptors. And because of this, Medohar Guggulu may interact with some modern medicines. Possible drug interactions include:

• Heart and blood-pressure medicines: Guggul has been shown to reduce the blood levels of drugs like propranolol and diltiazem by increasing their metabolism¹⁸. Therefore, these should not be combined.
• Thyroid medications: Guggul may increase thyroid hormone activity, so combining it with thyroid medications may cause overcorrection¹⁷.
• Hormonal therapies/contraceptives: Guggulsterone interacts with nuclear receptors involved in hormone regulation¹⁹. So, hormonal contraceptives or replacement therapy may be affected¹⁹.
• Drugs metabolised by liver enzymes: Guggul may induce liver enzymes²⁰. This may potentially lower the effectiveness of certain medications.

Always consult a qualified doctor before starting Medohar Guggulu, especially if you have any medical conditions or are on medication.

Dosage

Usually, 1-2 tablets per day after meals, often used for 6 to 12 weeks may be suggested, but the recommendation varies depending on the individual’s condition and the doctor’s advice^4,7.

Also note that commercially available Medohar Guggulu tablets differ significantly in potency due to varying formulation, purification methods, and resin content. So, Medohar Guggulu dosage can vary depending on your needs and also the brand used.

Important: Since Medohar Guggul has metabolic and digestive effects, dosage should be personalised. Always consult a qualified Ayurvedic practitioner to know the right dosage based on your overall health and needs.

Also Read: Guggul: Uses, Benefits, Side Effects and More!

Conclusion

Medohar Guggulu is an Ayurvedic formulation enriched with the therapeutic benefits of guggul and other metabolism-supporting herbs. Both classical Ayurvedic texts and modern scientific research highlight its helpful role in supporting healthy weight management, improving metabolism, regulating lipids, promoting joint comfort, and enhancing overall systemic wellness. Research on guggulsterone (the active compound in Commiphora mukul) further reinforces its pharmacological value due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cholesterol-balancing properties.

However, its effectiveness and safety depend greatly on product quality and correct dosing. More well-designed, long-term clinical studies are needed, and Medohar Guggulu should be used only as a supportive measure and not as a substitute for modern medical treatment.

When taken responsibly, along with a balanced lifestyle, a wholesome diet, and proper medical guidance, Medohar Guggulu has the potential to provide meaningful support for metabolic health and overall well-being.

Also Read: Kanchanar Guggulu: Benefits, Side Effects, Precautions & More!

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

References

1. Deng R. Therapeutic effects of guggul and its constituent guggulsterone: cardiovascular benefits. Cardiovasc Drug Rev. 2007 Winter;25(4):375-90. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18078436/
2. Shishodia S, Harikumar KB, Dass S, Ramawat KG, Aggarwal BB. The guggul for chronic diseases: ancient medicine, modern targets. Anticancer Res. 2008 Nov-Dec;28(6A):3647-64. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19189646/
3. Directorate of AYUSH, Delhi. Ayurveda, an indigenous ancient medical science of India [Internet]. Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi; [cited 2025 Nov 21]. Available from: https://ayush.delhi.gov.in/ayush/ayurveda
4. Bahuguna D, Gupta V, Powar V. Clinical evaluation of Medohar Guggulu and Arjun Kwath in the Ayurvedic management of dyslipidemia WSR Medoroga: a case study. World Journal of Pharmaceutical and Medical Research. 2025;11(10):351-354. Available from: https://www.wjpmr.com/download/article/140092025/1759746495.pdf
5. Awari A, Kaushik D, Öz E, Proestos C, Brennan C, Oz F, Kumar M. Study on Commiphora mukul (Guggul) gum: exploring the proximate composition and techno-functional properties and efficacy against obesity. Int J Food Sci Technol. 2025;60. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/397621210_Study_on_Commiphora_mukul_Guggul_gum_Exploring_the_Proximate_Composition_and_Techno-Functional_Properties_and_Efficacy_Against_Obesity
6. Bellamkonda R, Karuna R, Sasi Bhusana Rao B, Haritha K, Manjunatha B, Silpa S, Saralakumari D. Beneficiary effect of Commiphora mukul ethanolic extract against high fructose diet induced abnormalities in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in wistar rats. J Tradit Complement Med. 2017 Jun 20;8(1):203-211. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5755988/
7. Bhatt AD, Dalal DG, Shah SJ, Joshi BA, Gajjar MN, Vaidya RA, Vaidya AB, Antarkar DS. Conceptual and methodologic challenges of assessing the short-term efficacy of Guggulu in obesity: data emergent from a naturalistic clinical trial. J Postgrad Med. 1995 Jan-Mar;41(1):5-7. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10740691/
8. Singh BB, Mishra LC, Vinjamury SP, Aquilina N, Singh VJ, Shepard N. The effectiveness of Commiphora mukul for osteoarthritis of the knee: an outcomes study. Altern Ther Health Med. 2003 May-Jun;9(3):74-9. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12776478/
9. Goyal S, Khilnani G, Singhvi I, Singla S, Khilnani AK. Guggulipid of Commiphora mukul, with antiallodynic and antihyperalgesic activities in both sciatic nerve and spinal nerve ligation models of neuropathic pain. Pharm Biol. 2013 Dec;51(12):1487-98. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23862659/
10. Sharma B, Salunke R, Srivastava S, Majumder C, Roy P. Effects of guggulsterone isolated from Commiphora mukul in high fat diet induced diabetic rats. Food Chem Toxicol. 2009 Oct;47(10):2631-9. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19635521/
11. Preethi L, Ganamurali N, Dhanasekaran D, Sabarathinam S. Therapeutic use of Guggulsterone in COVID-19 induced obesity (COVIBESITY) and significant role in immunomodulatory effect. Obes Med. 2021 Jun;24:100346. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8081575/
12. Tripathi YB, Malhotra OP, Tripathi SN. Thyroid Stimulating Action of Z-Guggulsterone Obtained from Commiphora mukul. Planta Med. 1984 Feb;50(1):78-80. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17340256/
13. Shishodia S, Azu N, Rosenzweig JA, Jackson DA. Guggulsterone for Chemoprevention of Cancer. Curr Pharm Des. 2016;22(3):294-306. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26561056/
14. National Toxicology Program. NTP technical report on the toxicity studies of a gum guggul extract formulation administered by gavage to Sprague Dawley (Hsd:Sprague Dawley® SD®) rats and B6C3F1/N mice: Toxicity Report 99 [Internet]. National Toxicology Program; [cited 2025 Nov 21]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK561197/
15. Rastogi S. Urticarial rashes following guggulu intake: A case report. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2017 Jul-Sep;8(3):205-206. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5607394/
16. Woo SM, Davis WD, Aggarwal S, Clinton JW, Kiparizoska S, Lewis JH. Herbal and dietary supplement induced liver injury: Highlights from the recent literature. World J Hepatol. 2021 Sep 27;13(9):1019-1041. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8473494/
17. Panda S, Kar A. Gugulu (Commiphora mukul) induces triiodothyronine production: possible involvement of lipid peroxidation. Life Sci. 1999;65(12):PL137-41. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10503949/
18. Dalvi SS, Nayak VK, Pohujani SM, Desai NK, Kshirsagar NA, Gupta KC. Effect of gugulipid on bioavailability of diltiazem and propranolol. J Assoc Physicians India. 1994 Jun;42(6):454-5. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7852226/
19. Brobst DE, Ding X, Creech KL, Goodwin B, Kelley B, Staudinger JL. Guggulsterone activates multiple nuclear receptors and induces CYP3A gene expression through the pregnane X receptor. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2004 Aug;310(2):528-35. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15075359/
20. Philips CA, Ahamed R, Rajesh S, George T, Mohanan M, Augustine P. Comprehensive review of hepatotoxicity associated with traditional Indian Ayurvedic herbs. World J Hepatol. 2020 Sep 27;12(9):574-595. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7522561/

Disclaimer: The information provided here is for educational/awareness purposes only and is not intended to be a substitute for medical treatment by a healthcare professional and should not be relied upon to diagnose or treat any medical condition. The reader should consult a registered medical practitioner to determine the appropriateness of the information and before consuming any medication. PharmEasy does not provide any guarantee or warranty (express or implied) regarding the accuracy, adequacy, completeness, legality, reliability or usefulness of the information; and disclaims any liability arising thereof.

Links and product recommendations in the information provided here are advertisements of third-party products available on the website. PharmEasy does not make any representation on the accuracy or suitability of such products/services. Advertisements do not influence the editorial decisions or content. The information in this blog is subject to change without notice. The authors and administrators reserve the right to modify, add, or remove content without notification. It is your responsibility to review this disclaimer regularly for any changes.

Best and Worst Foods for Erectile Dysfunction

Introduction

Sexual health is an essential component of overall well-being, but many individuals face challenges that can significantly impact their quality of life. These common sexual health problems are quite diverse, ranging from issues like sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and difficulties with sexual function. One such male sexual dysfunction is Erectile Dysfunction, a most common issue particularly prevalent as men age. 

Erectile dysfunction means, persistent inability to achieve or maintain a penile erection rigid enough for satisfactory sexual intercourse. It can affect men at any age but becomes more prevalent as age increases; it affects about 40% of men at age 40, and this rate rises to 70% by age 70¹. The good news is that lifestyle choices like diet, play a crucial role in managing this condition. Interestingly, the same foods that support a healthy heart also promote healthy blood flow to all parts of the body, including the penis^1,2. 

In the following sections, we will explore the best and worst foods for this condition based on scientific evidence, helping you understand how simple dietary adjustments can potentially improve vascular health and, consequently, your erectile function, and when to consult a doctor for the same. 

What Causes Erectile Dysfunction?

The causes of erectile dysfunction are often multifactorial, involving psychological and physical issues: 

1. Psychological issue

These causes often involve mental and emotional factors, and they can exist even when physical causes are present: 

• Depression 
• Performance Anxiety 
• Other issues like relationship issues or stress 

While psychological issues like depression or the medications used to treat them, such as antidepressants can certainly trigger erectile problems, even vice-a-versa can happen. Erectile Dysfunction itself can, in turn become a significant cause of depression, anxiety, and performance related stress^1,3. 

2. Physical Problems

These are physical conditions that directly affect the systems responsible for achieving and maintaining an erection: 

• Vascular or Cardiovascular: These conditions can impair blood flow, which is crucial for an erection, e.g. Hypertension or any cardiovascular diseases¹.  
• Aging: Aging is a normal part of life, but it is also a primary contributor to erectile dysfunction. As age increases co-morbidities play an increasingly significant role in erectile dysfunction¹.  
• Hormonal changes: Testosterone is vital for sexual function, and low levels of testosterone can lead to reduced sexual desire, low libido and hypogonadism, contributing to erectile dysfunction indirectly¹.  Low testosterone typically causes low libido, reduced sexual desire and fatigue. Other endocrine conditions that affect multiple organ systems can also lead to the progression of erectile dysfunction, e.g. diabetes mellitus, thyroid disorder¹. 
• Traumatic Injury: Any injuries like pelvic fractures or spinal cord injury can affect the nerves supply of penis leading to erectile dysfunction¹.  
• Other causes include conditions like hyperlipidaemia (high cholesterol), atherosclerosis, stroke, sleep apnoea, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), glaucoma, multiple sclerosis, etc¹.  

Can Food Affect Erectile Function?

Yes, just as healthy food is crucial for your overall health, it also plays a vital role in your sexual function. Research suggests that adopting a healthy diet can lower the risk of erectile dysfunction to a certain extent and also lead to improvement in symptoms for those already affected⁴. Healthy diet benefits erectile dysfunction by optimizing fat and sugar metabolism, increasing antioxidants, and raising nitric oxide, which are essential for erections⁵. 

Note: A variety of factors contribute to erectile dysfunction, including neurological problems, hormonal imbalances, psychological distress, medication side effects, or structural abnormalities. Thus, although a good diet may be helpful, it cannot prevent the condition from occurring completely. 

Best Foods for Erectile Dysfunction

Diet plays a supporting role in dealing with erectile dysfunction, especially that is vascular-related. It aids in improving blood flow and boosting cardiovascular and sexual health. The foods listed below are rich in nutrients that help relax blood vessels, reduce inflammation, and improve circulation throughout the body including the blood vessels vital for an erection. 

1. Beets and Green Leafy Vegetables

Foods like beets and dark leafy greens are great because they contain natural nitrates. These nitrates are converted by mouth bacteria into nitrite, which your body then uses to create nitric oxide (NO). Nitric oxide (NO) triggers the widening of blood vessels (vasodilation) in the penis by initiating a chemical chain reaction inside the muscle cells, specifically, it activates a pathway that ultimately lowers calcium levels, causing the smooth muscles to relax and allowing increased blood flow necessary for an erection^7,8. 

2. Fruits like Strawberries, blueberries, apple and orange

These fruits are rich with flavonoids. Research suggests that certain plant compounds called flavonoids can help with penile erection by restoring the balance between signals that widen blood vessels and signals that constrict them.  They act by reducing oxidative stress, improving vessel wall function and increasing nitric oxide availability^6,9. 

3. Legumes like lentils, beans and peas

Legumes are rich in flavonoids and minerals like magnesium, zinc and copper that offer antioxidant support, help improve blood circulation, maintain testosterone levels and boost overall sexual health, thereby improving erectile dysfunction^6,10. 

4. Nuts like walnuts, almonds, hazelnuts, pumpkin seeds and peanut

Nuts are rich in the nonessential amino acid arginine, which the body uses to produce Nitric Oxide (NO). By consuming foods rich in arginine, you provide the body with the building blocks it needs to produce more nitric oxide, further supporting the vasodilation effect needed for erections^6,11. 

5. Fatty fish like salmon, mackerel, sardines

These are a rich source of Omega-3 fatty acids, which contribute to lowering triglyceride levels and reducing clotting risks. They also help in reducing inflammation and improve endothelial function. By promoting a healthy blood lipid profile, they help improve health of your arteries, facilitating unrestricted blood flow¹². 

6. Honey

Honey is a rich source of natural antioxidants including flavonoids which are beneficial in erectile dysfunction. Moreover, studies¹³ in male rats have shown that consuming a honey solution can lead to increased testosterone levels. Since, erectile dysfunction may be linked to low testosterone levels that often come with aging, this may be a potentially active natural remedy.  

7. Watermelon

When you eat watermelon, your body produces more nitric oxide. This nitric oxide helps relax and widen the blood vessels, resulting in improved blood circulation to the testes¹³.  

While these foods have shown to contain compounds that are beneficial for blood vessel health, studies assessing their direct relationship with erectile dysfunction are limited. Thus, further large-scale human trials are needed to confirm their benefits in this condition. 

Worst Foods for Erectile Dysfunction

While some foods can support sexual health, certain food items can also cause harm to your blood vessels or disrupt hormone balance, which are key to healthy erectile function, and thus, potentially worsen the condition. These include: 

1. Red meat

Red meat contains high amount of saturated fat. High intake of saturated fats leads to increased cholesterol and plaque build-up in the arteries (atherosclerosis). This clogging restricts blood flow throughout the body, including to the penis, which can contribute to erectile dysfunction¹⁴. 

2. Sugary foods and Drinks

Excessive sugary drinks can spike up your blood glucose levels, promoting insulin resistance and increasing the risk of developing diabetes. Diabetes is one of the major risk factors for erectile dysfunction because high blood sugar damages blood vessels and nerves, impairing the ability to achieve and maintain an erection¹⁴.  

3. Fried Food (French fries, Fried chicken)

Fried items are often high in fat oils, leading to high levels of saturated and trans fats. These fats contribute to developing high cholesterol and certain heart diseases. High levels of cholesterol can accumulate within the artery walls causing atherosclerosis, leading to arterial narrowing and reduced blood flow to vital organs¹⁶. 

4. High sodium or highly processed foods

High sodium content food can lead to high blood pressure, which is a significant risk factor of erectile dysfunction. Hypertension damages the artery walls, reducing the blood vessel’s ability to expand and properly supply blood¹⁶.  

5. Alcohol

Excessive alcohol consumption can elevate blood pressure and increase the risk of heart disease, it also raises level of triglycerides, a type of fat found in the blood, which can narrow blood vessel further leading to reduced blood supply¹⁶.  

Common Myths About Food and Erectile Dysfunction

Here, we’ll bust some common myths about food and erectile dysfunction. 

Myth 1: A specific miracle food will instantly cure erectile dysfunction.  

Fact: Certain food can help to reduce the symptoms of erectile dysfunction, like berries, watermelon, nuts, legumes etc. But it does not provide an instant cure from erectile dysfunction.  

Myth 2: Lifestyle factors are the only contributors to the development of erectile dysfunction. 

Fact: While lifestyle choices are key contributors to erectile dysfunction, the condition is not solely responsible, medical issues such as diabetes, hypertension, and hormonal fluctuations also play significant roles¹. 

Myth 3: For boosting erections, a low-fat diet is the best. 

Fact: Low-fat diets are generally good for heart health and improving circulation, but a very low-fat diet may be associated with low testosterone. Consuming a balanced diet containing omega-3 fats such as the Mediterranean diet is usually more heart heathy and aids in improving erectile dysfunction⁶.  

Other Lifestyle Changes to Support Erectile Dysfunction

Apart from making dietary changes, certain other lifestyle modifications can also help reduce the impact of erectile dysfunction. These include: 

• Regular exercise: Physical activity leads to improved endothelial function, and it also produces nitric oxide which helps to widen the blood vessel for a proper blood flow¹⁷. 
• Losing extra weight: Obesity causes high levels of fat (lipids) in the blood, which can narrow blood vessels and result in insufficient blood flow. Reducing weight with some physical activity can help reduce the symptoms of erectile dysfunction¹⁸. 
• Quitting smoking: Avoid smoking as it can narrow your blood vessels, including those that supply blood to penis¹⁹. 
• Reducing alcohol intake: Alcohol consumption can impair the function of sexual organs and decrease the production of essential hormones, which can lead to erectile dysfunction²⁰. 
• Relaxation and Sleep: Follow some mindfulness techniques like yoga or meditation to relax and reduce stress. Get 8 hours of good quality sleep at night.  
• Counselling: In case of relationship-related stress, try to address issues with your partner. If need be, you can consider couple-counselling. 

Also Read: Does Low Testosterone Cause Weight Gain?  

When to See a Doctor?

If you experience any of the following situations, a consultation with your healthcare provider is necessary to determine the underlying cause and explore effective treatment options²¹: 

• The problem still persists despite making lifestyle changes. 
• Erection issues started following an injury or prostate surgery. 
• You experience additional symptoms (e.g., low back pain, abdominal pain, or changes in urination). 
• If you suspect a drug is causing erectile dysfunction, you need to consult your provider about adjusting the dose or switching medicine (do not stop taking it on your own). 
• If you need to discuss your fears about sexual activity due to heart problems (sexual activity is generally safe for men with heart conditions.) 
• Seek immediate medical help if erectile dysfunction medicine causes an erection lasting more than 4 hours. 

Also Read: Worst Foods for Oedema You Should Be Aware Of

Conclusion

We know that talking about Erectile Dysfunction can be difficult, but please understand that it’s a common, treatable condition often rooted in vascular health. The path to better sexual health and erections is the same good habits that lead to a healthy heart. By prioritizing a diet rich in nitrates, flavonoids, and omega-3s (found in vegetables, fruits, nuts, and fish) and limiting foods high in saturated fats, sugar, and sodium, you can directly improve your blood flow and sexual function. Take these manageable steps today and remember that when diet and lifestyle changes aren’t enough, professional medical help is available and highly effective. You are not alone in this, and positive change is absolutely within your reach. 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

References

1. Sooriyamoorthy T, Leslie SW. Erectile Dysfunction [Internet]. PubMed. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562253/ 
2. Definition & Facts for Erectile Dysfunction | NIDDK [Internet]. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. 2017. Available from: https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/urologic-diseases/erectile-dysfunction/definition-facts 
3. Vasan SS, Pandey S, Rao STS, Gupte DM, Gangavaram RR, Saxena A, et al. Association of Sexual Health and Mental Health in Erectile Dysfunction: Expert Opinion From the Indian Context. Cureus. 2025 Jan 22; Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11845324/ 
4. Bauer SR, Breyer BN, Stampfer MJ, Rimm EB, Giovannucci EL, Kenfield SA. Association of Diet With Erectile Dysfunction Among Men in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study. JAMA Network Open. 2020 Nov 13;3(11):e2021701. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7666422/ 
5. Mediterranean diet and erectile dysfunction: a current perspective. Central European Journal of Urology. 2017;70(2). Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5510347/ 
6. Eating, Diet, & Nutrition for Erectile Dysfunction [Internet]. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. NIDDK – National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2025. Available from: https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/urologic-diseases/erectile-dysfunction/eating-diet-nutrition 
7. Allen K, Jacob Y, Thein W, Esselstyn C, Ostfeld RJ. Erectile Dysfunction Reversed After Adoption of a Whole Food Plant-Based Diet: A Case Report. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine. 2025 Sep 8; Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12417455/ 
8. Burnett AL. The Role of Nitric Oxide in Erectile Dysfunction: Implications for Medical Therapy. The Journal of Clinical Hypertension [Internet]. 2006 Dec;8:53–62. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8109295/  
9. Cassidy A, Franz M, Rimm EB. Dietary flavonoid intake and incidence of erectile dysfunction. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2016 Jan 13;103(2):534–41. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4733263/ 
10. Liu RJ, Li SY, Xu ZP, Yu JJ, Mao WP, Sun C, et al. Dietary metal intake and the prevalence of erectile dysfunction in US men: Results from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001–2004. Frontiers in Nutrition [Internet]. 2022 Nov 3 [cited 2024 Jan 29];9. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9668876/ 
11. Salas-Huetos A, Muralidharan J, Galiè S, Salas-Salvadó J, Bulló M. Effect of Nut Consumption on Erectile and Sexual Function in Healthy Males: A Secondary Outcome Analysis of the FERTINUTS Randomized Controlled Trial. Nutrients [Internet]. 2019 Jun 19 [cited 2019 Dec 9];11(6):1372. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/11/6/1372/htm 
12. DiNicolantonio JJ, O’Keefe JH. The Benefits of Omega-3 Fats for Stabilizing and Remodeling Atherosclerosis. Missouri Medicine [Internet]. 2020 Jan;117(1):65. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi3.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7023944/ 
13. Haitham Al-Madhagi, Abd Alraouf Tarabishi. Nutritional aphrodisiacs: Biochemistry and Pharmacology. Current Research in Food Science [Internet]. 2024 Jan 1;9:100783–3. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11225857/ 
14. Chen M. Hardening of the arteries: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [Internet]. Medlineplus.gov. 2016. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000171.htm 
15. CDC. Diabetes and Men [Internet]. Diabetes. 2024. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/risk-factors/diabetes-and-men.html  
16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Heart Disease Risk Factors [Internet]. Heart Disease. CDC; 2024. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/heart-disease/risk-factors/index.html 
17. Gerbild H, Larsen CM, Graugaard C, Areskoug Josefsson K. Physical Activity to Improve Erectile Function: A Systematic Review of Intervention Studies. Sexual Medicine [Internet]. 2018 Jun;6(2):75–89. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5960035/   
18. Moon KH, Park SY, Kim YW. Obesity and Erectile Dysfunction: From Bench to Clinical Implication. The World Journal of Men’s Health. 2019;37(2):138. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6479091/ obesity 
19. Erection problems – aftercare: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [Internet]. Medlineplus.gov. 2018 [cited 2025 Dec 2]. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000396.htm  
20. CDC. Alcohol Use Effects on Men’s and Women’s Health [Internet]. Alcohol Use. 2025. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/about-alcohol-use/alcohol-and-sex-considerations.html  
21. Erection problems: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [Internet]. medlineplus.gov. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/007617.htm  

 Disclaimer: The information provided here is for educational/awareness purposes only and is not intended to be a substitute for medical treatment by a healthcare professional and should not be relied upon to diagnose or treat any medical condition. The reader should consult a registered medical practitioner to determine the appropriateness of the information and before consuming any medication. PharmEasy does not provide any guarantee or warranty (express or implied) regarding the accuracy, adequacy, completeness, legality, reliability or usefulness of the information; and disclaims any liability arising thereof.

Links and product recommendations in the information provided here are advertisements of third-party products available on the website. PharmEasy does not make any representation on the accuracy or suitability of such products/services. Advertisements do not influence the editorial decisions or content. The information in this blog is subject to change without notice. The authors and administrators reserve the right to modify, add, or remove content without notification. It is your responsibility to review this disclaimer regularly for any changes.

Smog: What Is It, Causes and Ways To Protect Yourself From It 

Introduction

Did you know that almost 99% of the world’s population breathes air that is polluted enough to harm their health¹? This widespread exposure to unsafe air has made air pollution one of the most urgent global health challenges of our time. 

Within this broader crisis, smog has emerged as one of the most visible and harmful forms of air pollution. However, smog itself is not a single pollutant. It is a combination of substances like ozone, fine particles, and nitrogen gases. And because of these different substances, it affects different groups of people differently²  

As urbanisation, traffic emissions, and industrial activities continue to rise, smog has become an increasingly common (and dangerous) part of the air we inhale every day^3,4. It is a public health concern that not only causes discomfort like coughing or eye irritation but also worsens existing heart and lung conditions and increases long-term health risks². 

As smog episodes become more frequent and intense, understanding their causes, effects, and the ways we can protect ourselves is essential for safeguarding our health and well-being. 

What Is Smog and How Is Smog Formed?

The word smog is a combination of two other words⁵: 

• Smoke (fine particles and gases released from burning materials such as coal, wood, fuel, and various industrial sources) 
• Fog (a low-lying cloud formed from tiny water droplets or ice crystals) 

Under certain environmental conditions (such as sunlight), these two components (smoke and fog) interact and result in a thick and hazy layer suspended close to the ground. This is how smog is formed^2,5. 

Fact: The term smog was first introduced by H. A. Des Voeux in 1905 to describe the polluted atmospheric conditions in several British towns. It gained widespread public attention in 1911, when Des Voeux reported over 1,000 deaths in Edinburgh and Glasgow caused by this dense and dangerous “smoke-fog”². 

Causes of Smog

Smog develops when various air pollutants are released into the atmosphere from natural and human activities.  

Smog is caused due to²: 

• Industries and power plants: These emit large amounts of sulphur gases, nitrogen gases, and particulate matter (PM) through the burning of fossil fuels that eventually lead to smog. 
• Vehicle emissions: Cars and trucks release large amounts of nitrogen oxides (NO_x), PM, and hydrocarbons, all of which drive smog formation. 
• Combustion of fossil fuels: Coal, diesel, and other fuels used in households, industries, and electricity generation release sulphur gases, nitrogen gases, and PM, all of which can contribute to smog formation. 
• Sunlight driven chemical reactions: Pollutants in the air (such as hydrocarbons and NO_x) react in sunlight to form photochemical smog components like peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and tropospheric ozone. 
• Natural sources: Volcanic eruptions, lightning, and forest fires can release NO_x and sulphur gases that add to the overall pollution load. 
• Industrial solvents and chemical processes: They release volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that react in sunlight and aggravate smog formation. 

Types of Smog

Broadly, there are two types of smog: 

1. Industrial Smog (London Smog)

This type of smog is high in sulphur oxides (SO_x)². 

• Environmental conditions: Sulphurous smog forms under cold, foggy conditions, when SO_x and other pollutants mix with fog to create a dense smoke-fog layer⁶. This was the type of smog responsible for the historic 1911 and 1952 London smog events². 

2. Photochemical Smog (Los Angeles-Type Smog)

This type of smog is high in NO_x, ozone, hydrocarbons, and VOCs². 

• Environmental Conditions: Photochemical smog forms in dry climates (like Los Angeles) when sunlight reacts with NO_X and VOCs, producing secondary pollutants like ozone and PAN^2,6. 

Note: The modern smog in most cities (including India) is photochemical smog, formed when sunlight reacts with NO_x and VOCs, producing ozone. And when this ozone mixes with fine particulate matter (such as PM_2.5), it creates the thick, harmful smog we commonly see today⁷. 

Adverse Smog Effects on Health

Smog is particularly alarming because of its adverse impact on health. It can seriously affect health both in the short and long term. Even brief increases in smog levels can lead to more hospital visits and even deaths². 

The most common adverse smog effects on human health include: 

• Respiratory system effects: Coughing, breathing discomfort, worsening of asthma and bronchiolitis, and progression of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)^2,8. 
• Eye and throat irritation: Red, watery eyes and irritation of the throat lining. 
• Cardiovascular effects: Increased risk of cardiovascular disease, including events such as stroke, and worsening of existing heart conditions². 
• Neurological effects: Links to neurological disorders, such as Parkinson’s disease, with prolonged exposure⁹. 
• Pregnant women: Impaired foetal health, including low birth weight or reduced birth length². 
• Cancer risk: Long-term genetic changes that may raise the risk of various cancers, particularly lung cancer^2,8. 

Other adverse effects of smog include: 

• Harm to plants: Key smog pollutants can interfere with photosynthesis, damage leaf surfaces, and reduce plant growth and crop yield¹⁰. 
• Effects on animals: Animals exposed to the same atmospheric pollutants experience respiratory stress and disruptions in normal physiological processes similar to those observed in humans⁵. 
• Reduced visibility and disruptions in daily life: Dense smog limits visibility, affecting transportation, delaying flights, and increasing the risk of road accidents^11,12. It also reduces daylight quality, impacting outdoor activities and productivity¹¹. 
• Economic and social impacts: Increased healthcare burden, reduced outdoor work hours, school closures, and loss of agricultural productivity contribute to significant economic losses during severe smog episodes¹¹. 

How to Protect Yourself from Smog?

When smog levels rise, small choices can make a big difference. Here’s how to protect your health and stay safe. 

1. Stay Informed

• Check daily air quality forecasts via local weather reports or apps¹³. 
• Follow Air Quality Alerts issued by local/state agencies¹⁴. 

2. Modify Outdoor Activities

• Smog peaks usually from late morning to early evening, so opt for early morning routines¹⁵.  
• Avoid strenuous outdoor exercise when smog levels are high. If you must be outside¹⁴: 
• Choose less strenuous activities. 
• Take frequent breaks. 
• Schedule workouts in the early morning when ozone tends to be lower. 
• Stay away from busy roads and traffic corridors. 

3. Stay Indoors on High Smog Days

• Indoor levels of ozone and PM are usually lower than outdoors¹⁵. 
• Keep windows closed to reduce infiltration (air exchange rates drop by around 50% when windows are closed)¹⁵. 
• Use air conditioning with recirculation mode¹⁵. 
• Reduce indoor activities that generate pollution¹⁴: 
• Avoid smoking, incense, and candles. 
• Limit frying, wood-burning stoves, or gas-powered appliances. 

4. Improve Indoor Air Quality

• Use high efficiency particle air (HEPA) air cleaners (portable or in-duct). 
• HEPA systems can reduce indoor PM by 60 to 90%. 
• Ensure proper home ventilation but avoid bringing in outdoor pollutants during alerts¹⁵. 

5. Reduce Inhalation Dose

• Lower your level of physical exertion during outdoor exposure. 
• Prefer nose breathing over mouth breathing to naturally filter inhaled air¹⁵. 

6. Use Personal Protective Equipment (When Necessary, in Situations with Poor Air Quality)

• High-quality particle-filtering respirators (N95 or similar) can reduce particulate exposure significantly¹⁶. 
• Please note that these may increase breathing effort. Thus, use cautiously if you are suffering from heart/lung disease¹⁵. 

How to Prevent Smog?

Reducing smog means cutting emissions at the source. The following practical tips show how commuters, households, and policymakers can act together to reduce smog. 

1. Transportation Choices

• Use public transport, carpool, bike, or walk for short trips¹³. 
• Drive less, combine errands, and avoid unnecessary trips¹⁴. 
• Prefer electric or hybrid vehicles to eliminate/limit tailpipe emissions¹⁷. 
• Keep cars and engines tuned and tyres well-inflated¹⁴. 
• Refuel after dusk to reduce VOC emissions that form ozone¹⁷. 

2. Household Actions

• Use low-VOC paints, cleaners, and other products. Also, seal containers tightly¹⁷. 
• Conserve energy: 
  • Adjust thermostats slightly higher in summer and lower in winter¹⁷.
  • Turn off lights and unplug appliances you are not using¹⁴. 
  • Avoid burning^14,17: 
  • Wood (fireplaces, stoves) 
  • Trash, plastic, leaves 
  • Use gas logs instead of wood, and only burn dry, seasoned wood if you must. 

3. Lawn and Garden Practices

• Use electric or hand-powered equipment instead of gasoline-powered tools¹³. 
• Compost or mulch yard waste instead of burning it¹⁷. 
• Avoid using pesticides and chemicals during high-smog forecasts¹⁷. 

4. Industrial and Construction Source Controls

• Limit emissions from factories through cleaner technologies, proper maintenance, and adherence to pollution-control standards¹⁸. 
• Enforce dust-control measures at construction sites (like water spraying and fog cannon)¹⁹. 
• Promote the use of renewable energy and cleaner fuels in industrial operations¹¹. 

6. Community and Policy Engagement

• Encourage schools and communities to limit idling and adopt clean buses¹³. 
• Engage in local Healthy Air/Clean Air campaigns¹³. 
• Support policies that prioritise clean air, reduce emissions, and expand clean-energy access.  

When to See a Doctor?

You should seek medical attention if smog exposure leads to worsening of existing conditions or any of the following symptoms^20,21: 

• Persistent coughing, wheezing, or shortness of breath 
• Chest tightness, chest pain, or difficulty breathing 
• Worsening of asthma or COPD symptoms 
• Severe throat or eye irritation  
• Fatigue, confusion, dizziness, or headaches after being outside 
• Bluish (light skin) or grey/whitish (dark skin) discolouration of the lips, tongue, or fingertips 
• Inability to speak in full sentences or difficulty walking due to breathlessness 
• New or unusual respiratory symptoms  
• Symptoms that interfere with daily activities, work, or sleep 

Important: Individuals with lung disease, heart disease, children, elderly people, and pregnant women should be especially cautious and seek care promptly if symptoms worsen, as they are more vulnerable to adverse health effects of air pollution^20,22. 

Conclusion

Smog remains a significant public health threat, but its impact can be greatly reduced through awareness, prevention, and timely action.  

Understanding what is smog, how smog forms, recognising its health risks, and staying informed about air quality are essential steps in protecting oneself. Remember, small but consistent lifestyle changes, such as modifying outdoor activities on high-smog days, improving indoor air quality, reducing personal emissions, and supporting cleaner community practices, can collectively lower exposure and protect long-term health.  

For high-risk individuals (children, older adults, and those with asthma, COPD, or cardiovascular disease), even mild symptoms may warrant medical attention, making early evaluation especially important. For others, seeking prompt medical care when symptoms worsen ensures timely intervention and minimises complications. 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

References

1. World Health Organization. Air pollution data portal. Global Health Observatory [Internet]. WHO; [Cited 2 Dec 2025]. Available from: https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/air-pollution 
2. Javed A, Aamir F, Gohar UF, Mukhtar H, Zia-Ui-Haq M, Alotaibi MO, Bin-Jumah MN, Marc Vlaic RA, Pop OL. The Potential Impact of Smog Spell on Humans’ Health Amid COVID-19 Rages. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021 Oct 29;18(21):11408. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8583367/ 
3. Chen F, Zhang W, Mfarrej MFB, Saleem MH, Khan KA, Ma J, Raposo A, Han H. Breathing in danger: Understanding the multifaceted impact of air pollution on health impacts. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2024 Jul 15;280:116532. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651324006080 
4. Clean Air Act overview. Air pollution: Current and future challenges [Internet]. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; [Cited 2 Dec 2025]. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/clean-air-act-overview/air-pollution-current-and-future-challenges 
5. Wong TY. Smog induces oxidative stress and microbiota disruption. J Food Drug Anal. 2017 Apr;25(2):235-244. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9332540/ 
6. Cai H, Wang C. Surviving With Smog and Smoke: Precision Interventions? Chest. 2017 Nov;152(5):925-929. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5812760/ 
7. Zhang JJ, Wei Y, Fang Z. Ozone Pollution: A Major Health Hazard Worldwide. Front Immunol. 2019 Oct 31;10:2518. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6834528/ 
8. Grzywa-Celińska A, Krusiński A, Milanowski J. ‘Smoging kills’ – Effects of air pollution on human respiratory system. Ann Agric Environ Med. 2020 Mar 17;27(1):1-5. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32208572/ 
9. Genc S, Zadeoglulari Z, Fuss SH, Genc K. The adverse effects of air pollution on the nervous system. J Toxicol. 2012;2012:782462. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3317189/ 
10. Memoona M, Faazal B, Qasim M, Mumtaz S, Iftikhar M, Khalid I, et al. Crop quality and quantity as influenced by important air pollutants in Pakistan. Advances in Botanical Research. Volume 108. Academic Press; 2023. p. 109-144. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/chapter/bookseries/abs/pii/S0065229623000472 
11. India Meteorological Department. Met-Olympiad Study Material Junior [Internet]. New Delhi: IMD; [cited 2025 Dec 02]. Available from: https://mausam.imd.gov.in/met-oly/Met-Olympiad-Study-Material-Junior.pdf 
12. Gao J, Ying C, Hu L, Lin Z, Xie H. Assessing the effects of environmental smog warning policy on preventing traffic deaths based on RDD strategy. Atmosphere. 2023;14(6):1043. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/14/6/1043 
13. American Lung Association. 10 Tips to Protect Yourself from Unhealthy Air [Internet]. American Lung Association; [cited 2025 Dec 02]. Available from: https://www.lung.org/clean-air/outdoors/10-tips-to-protect-yourself 
14. National Weather Service. Clearing the Air on Weather and Air Quality [Internet]. Weather.gov; [cited 2025 Dec 02]. Available from: https://www.weather.gov/wrn/summer-article-clearing-the-air 
15. Laumbach R, Meng Q, Kipen H. What can individuals do to reduce personal health risks from air pollution? J Thorac Dis. 2015 Jan;7(1):96-107. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4311076/ 
16. Kodros JK, O’Dell K, Samet JM, L’Orange C, Pierce JR, Volckens J. Quantifying the Health Benefits of Face Masks and Respirators to Mitigate Exposure to Severe Air Pollution. Geohealth. 2021 Sep 1;5(9):e2021GH000482. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8438762/ 
17. AirNow Educational Resources. What You Can Do [Internet]. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; [cited 2025 Dec 02]. Available from: https://www.airnow.gov/education/what-you-can-do/ 
18. Srivastava RP, Kumar S, Tiwari A. Continuous emission monitoring systems (CEMS) in India: Performance evaluation, policy gaps and financial implications for effective air pollution control. J Environ Manage. 2024;359:120584. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S030147972400570X 
19. Yan H, Li Q, Feng K, Zhang L. The characteristics of PM emissions from construction sites during the earthwork and foundation stages: an empirical study evidence. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2023 May;30(22):62716-62732. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10167100/ 
20. Manisalidis I, Stavropoulou E, Stavropoulos A, Bezirtzoglou E. Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review. Front Public Health. 2020 Feb 20;8:14. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7044178/ 
21. Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America. What are asthma symptoms? [Internet]. AAFA; [cited 2025 Dec 03]. Available from: https://aafa.org/asthma/asthma-symptoms/ 
22. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Air pollution [Internet]. NIEHS; [cited 2025 Dec 02]. Available from: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/air-pollution 
23. Wang M, Kim RY, Kohonen-Corish MRJ, Chen H, Donovan C, Oliver BG. Particulate matter air pollution as a cause of lung cancer: epidemiological and experimental evidence. Br J Cancer. 2025 Jun;132(11):986-996. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12119916/ 

Disclaimer: The information provided here is for educational/awareness purposes only and is not intended to be a substitute for medical treatment by a healthcare professional and should not be relied upon to diagnose or treat any medical condition. The reader should consult a registered medical practitioner to determine the appropriateness of the information and before consuming any medication. PharmEasy does not provide any guarantee or warranty (express or implied) regarding the accuracy, adequacy, completeness, legality, reliability or usefulness of the information; and disclaims any liability arising thereof.

Links and product recommendations in the information provided here are advertisements of third-party products available on the website. PharmEasy does not make any representation on the accuracy or suitability of such products/services. Advertisements do not influence the editorial decisions or content. The information in this blog is subject to change without notice. The authors and administrators reserve the right to modify, add, or remove content without notification. It is your responsibility to review this disclaimer regularly for any changes.

Caring for a Baby with Blocked Nose: Simple Tips for Parents 

Introduction

Blocked nose is when there is difficulty in breathing through the nose. It can happen due to an obstruction in the nasal passage or more commonly due to swelling in the lining of the nose (occurring due to several reasons). 

Blocked nose can be very distressing as it can interfere with breathing. In babies, it can further lead to sleep disturbance, irritation and poor feeding¹. Sadly, as the little ones cannot even express what they are going through, they just tend to cry, become irritated or even miserable at times. Moreover, when it comes to babies, blocked nose can be difficult to manage as only very few medications can be prescribed by doctors to these young ones. 

Well, following some simple measures at home can help you ease your little one’s discomfort, but it is also important to know when to take medical advice. 

In this blog, we will discuss about the signs of a blocked nose in babies, share certain tips that can help avoid your baby from getting a stuffy nose, some simple measures you can take at home to ease their symptoms and when you must check with a doctor. So, let’s get started! 

Why Does a Baby’s Nose Gets Blocked?

Common causes of blocked nose can include some external and internal factors. These are^1,2:

External Factors

• Viral infection: The most common reason for blocked nose is a common cold usually caused by a viral infection. Viral infections can occur due to viruses like Rhinovirus, Influenza virus and Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). 
• Bacterial infection: Bacterial infections like sinusitis commonly caused by organisms like Streptococcus pneumonia or Haemophilus influenza can also lead to a blocked nose³.
• Exposure to allergens: Allergy causing agents like pollen grain, dust, smoke and perfumes causes irritation in the nasal cavity leading to cold or stuffy nose. 
• Climatic changes: Sudden change in climate or exposure to dry air or cold weather can lead to common cold in babies. 
• Foreign body inhalation: Inhalation of foreign objects like nuts or any small food particles can obstruct the airway. 

Internal Factors

• Nasal septum deviation: Nasal septum is the thin wall of bone and cartilage that divides the inside of your nose into two separate air passages, or nostrils⁴. 
• Injury: Some babies get nasal injury during the process of birth; this can also be a cause for blocked nose⁴.
• Gastroesophageal reflux in newborns: This condition results from the backflow of stomach acid into the food pipe making it difficult for the baby to breath⁵.
• Nasal polyps:  A small soft lump that is formed inside the nasal passages or sinuses⁴.
• Enlarged adenoids: These are swollen tissue behind the nose that can block a babies’ nasal passage, making it difficult to breathe. This can lead to issues like loud breathing and restless sleep. ⁶ 

External factors lead to nasal congestion, commonly known as a stuffy nose, by irritating the membrane of nasal mucosa. In response to this, the nasal lining swells and increases its mucus production, leading to the sensation of a blocked or congested airway. The excessive mucus may sometimes start oozing out of the nose causing a runny nose².

Nasal Congestion Symptoms in Babies

A blocked nose can present with a variety of symptoms, including^7,8. 

• Noisy breathing: This is the most common symptom that happens due to narrowed airway passage. 
• Breathlessness: Due to increased mucus secretion, which narrows the nasal cavity, a baby may have difficulty breathing or may breathe rapidly. 
• Reduced appetite: When a baby’s nose is blocked, their appetite can be reduced. They may refuse to feed for long periods because the congestion makes them feel breathless. 
• Lack of sleep or Snoring: When a baby experiences shortness of breath, their sleep may be disturbed. Blocked nose can also lead to snoring sounds. 
• Irritability: When a baby’s nose is congested, it can make them irritable and fussy. 
• Cough: Baby might cough or gag in an attempt to clear the mucus dripping down their throat. 
• Sneezing: Particularly if congestion is associated with exposure to allergens, it causes nasal irritation, which often results in sneezing. 
• Watery and red eyes: As the eyes, nose, and tear ducts are all connected, a runny nose and sneezing can cause the baby’s eyes to become red and watery. 
• Fever: If a baby’s blocked nose is caused by an infection, they may also develop a fever. 
• Runny nose: Sometimes, you might see clear, watery, or even thick and discoloured mucus coming from their nose. 

While nasal congestion symptoms in babies can vary from one to the other, it’s important for parents to keep a close eye on all the signs, no matter how minor they seem. 

I feel it is important for parents to understand the distinction between true congestion and physiological noisy breathing, which occurs simply because newborns have very narrow nasal passages. If your baby is making snuffle sounds but is feeding well and sleeping comfortably, this is normal and requires no treatment, as using drops or suction on a healthy nose will only cause unnecessary irritation.

Dr. Sarthak Soni, MBBS, MD (Pediatrics)

Natural and Safe Ways to Unblock Babies Blocked Nose

Dealing with a stuffy baby nose is never easy, but you can help them feel better with these simple, natural methods you can use right at home^2,9,10. 

1. Nasal wash

A saline nasal wash is beneficial for cleansing and moisturizing nasal passages. It works by flushing out irritants like pollen, dust and other debris. This will also help to remove extra mucus in the nasal cavity. Normal saline drops or spray are available in all pharmacy stores. Some nasal washing devices like neti pots, rubber nasal bulb are also available at the stores^11,18.

2. Use of suction bulb or mucus extractor

For this, firstly moisten the nasal cavity with a saline spray and squeeze the bulb of suction to expel the air. Then gently insert its tip into the nose and release the bulb to suction out the mucus. If the mucus is properly moistened it will be easily expelled using the bulb. Make sure to do this before feeding because a clearer airway will help the baby feel better, leading to more successful feeds¹².

3. Cool mist vaporizer

This helps to moisten the air and clear the nasal cavity. Place the unit 2 meter away from the bed. Avoid running the vaporizer continuously and keep humidity between 40% to 50% to prevent mould and mildew (type of fungus) growth because it can cause breathing issue. Use distilled water instead of tap water, minerals in the tap water can cause harmful white dust and breathing problems. Make sure to clean and dry the vaporizer before and after each use to prevent from bacterial infection¹³. 

4. Steam

Giving direct steam for babies is not safe as it can cause burn so, create a steamy environment by running a hot shower and sitting with your baby in the bathroom for some time before bed. 

5. Proper hydration

Make sure your baby stays well-hydrated. Continue breastfeeding or formula feeding and if you feel child is struggling to eat try offering smaller amounts more frequently. Giving them plenty of warm fluids helps thin out mucus and prevents dehydration. 

6. Elevate bed

To reduce nasal congestion and to help your child breathe easier, you can raise the head of their bed. Try placing a pillow under the head of the mattress or putting some blocks under the bed’s legs at the head. 

7. Rest

To reduce their fussiness and irritation it’s important to have a good sleep and rest. Following the above steps should help the baby feel better to a certain extent and promote proper sleep and rest. 

When your baby has a stuffy nose, these simple, natural tricks can make some difference. By helping them breathe easier, they will be more comfortable and will be able to get the rest they need to feel better. 

Note: You must not rely only on these home remedies for the treatment of the condition. 

Finding out how to treat congestion depends on what is causing it. Your baby’s doctor can help you find out what is going on and suggest the best ways to help your little one feel better. 

An important point I would want parents to know is that Infants are “obligate nasal breathers” for at least the first 3–4 months. This means they primarily breathe through the nose rather than the mouth. Their nasal passages are much narrower than older children and adults, so even small amounts of mucus cause relatively large airflow obstruction.

Dr. Kathak Shah, MBBS, DDV, Fellowship in lasers & aesthetics, Fellowship in Dermatosurgery

How to Prevent Frequent Nose Blocks in Babies?

Preventing frequent nose blocks in babies is often a matter of taking a few simple, proactive steps. By focusing on some points mentioned below, you can help your little one breathe easier and stay more comfortable^14,15,16. 

• Safety first: To keep your little one healthy, it’s important to keep their surroundings clean. Make sure to regularly disinfect the floor, their toys, and pacifiers to protect them from germs. 
• Maintaining good hygiene: Babies explore everything with their hands, and then those hands often go into their mouths. So, make sure to wash your own hands frequently, and gently wipe your baby’s hands clean to prevent the spread of germs. 
• Routine immunization: Keeping up with your baby’s immunizations is a simple yet powerful way to protect them. These shots help their little bodies build strong defences against common illnesses like flu, that can lead to congestion and other complications. 
• Protect your babies: Limit their exposure to sick people, their little immune systems are still developing, so something as simple as a cold can cause significant discomfort and congestion. 
• Boost their health: Support a healthy lifestyle with a nutritious diet and plenty of fluids. A healthy body is better at fighting off germs. 
• Keep airways moist: During dry air climate, use a humidifier in rooms, to add moisture to the air. You can also use saline sprays or washes often to keep their nasal passages from drying out. 
• Discourage nose picking: Digging or pricking into nose can lead to nose bleeding or infections. So, make sure to moisten the nasal cavity with the use of saline drops and use suction bulb for cleaning. 
• Limit irritants: Protect your child from smoke and other things that can cause allergies. Avoid smoking around them or in your home. 

Taking these few simple precautions, you can make a big difference in preventing frequent nose blocks in your baby. By focusing on good hygiene and creating a healthy environment, you can help them stay healthy.

Also Read: A Complete Guide to Baby Care and Newborn Hygiene  

When to Consult a Doctor?

It’s natural to worry when your baby is sick. Knowing when to call a doctor or seek emergency care can make a big difference. You should call your primary care provider if they have any of the following symptoms^15,16,18 : 

• Unusual Cough: Watch out for a barking or a wheezing cough this could be a potential sign of pneumonia (infection in the lungs) or another chest infection like bronchiolitis (infection in the tiny airway that leads to the lungs). 
• Persistent Cold: If their nasal discharge has been thick for more than 10 days, it might be more than just a simple cold. 
• Feeding issues: If the baby is refusing to feed or not feeding properly, or you observe that the baby is breaking away while feeding to gasp for air, it is always better to consult a doctor for immediate relief. 
• Unusual Fussiness and Crying: When a baby cries for a long time and seems unusually cranky, it could be a sign they’re in pain, possibly from an earache or a headache. 
• Change in Colour of Mucus: If the mucus colour seems to be greenish yellow for more than 10 days, it’s another possible sign of a chest infection like pneumonia. 
• High or Persistent Fever: Call the doctor if their fever repeatedly spikes, or if a fever over 100.4°F lasts more than three days. 

Seek emergency care if you see below symptoms: 

• Breathing difficulties: This includes trouble in breathing or taking short, rapid breaths. 
• Bluish Discoloration (Cyanosis): If their lips or fingernails look bluish, it’s a serious sign that they aren’t getting enough oxygen. 
• Severe Cough: If baby chokes or vomits due to cough, it means the baby needs immediate medical attention. 

Knowing these important signs gives you an idea of what action to take. Like when to call a doctor for a persistent problem and when to rush to the emergency room for breathing trouble. This will ensure your little one gets exactly the right care when they need it. 

Also Read: Baby Rash: Causes, Types, Home Remedies & Prevention 

Conclusion

A stuffy nose can be tough on the little one but remember that it’s a very common hurdle for parents. The good news is that, by staying calm and trying some simple, gentle home remedies, you can help your baby feel a lot more comfortable. Look out for signs that need medical attention, and if you have any concerns or questions, remember that your doctor is always there to provide guidance and reassurance. With a little care and patience, your baby will be breathing easy and be back to their cheerful self in no time. 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

References

1. Mohamed S, Emmanuel N, Foden N. Nasal obstruction: a common presentation in primary care. British Journal of General Practice [Internet]. 2019 Nov 28;69(689):628–9. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6867212/ 

2. Stuffy or runny nose – children: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [Internet]. medlineplus.gov. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003051.htm 

3. Patel ZM, Hwang PH. Acute Bacterial Rhinosinusitis. Infections of the Ears, Nose, Throat, and Sinuses. 2018;133–43. Available from:https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7122468/ 

4. Nose Injuries and Disorders [Internet]. medlineplus.gov. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/noseinjuriesanddisorders.html 

5. Reflux in Infants [Internet]. medlineplus.gov. 2017. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/refluxininfants.html 

6. Influences of Airway Obstruction Caused by Adenoid Hypertrophy on Growth and Development of Craniomaxillofacial Structure and Respiratory Function in Children. Tang M, editor. Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine [Internet]. 2022 Aug 30 [cited 2023 May 9];2022:1–7. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9448534/ 

7. Australia H. Coughs and colds in children [Internet]. www.healthdirect.gov.au. 2022. Available from: https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/coughs-and-colds-in-children 

8. CDC. Symptoms of RSV [Internet]. Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection (RSV). 2024. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/rsv/symptoms/index.html 

9. Rochester.edu. [Internet]. 2024. Available from: https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content?contenttypeid=56&contentid=2914 

10. How to treat the common cold at home: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [Internet]. Medlineplus.gov. 2016. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000466.htm 

11. Saline nasal washes: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [Internet]. medlineplus.gov. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000801.htm 

12. Understanding Bronchiolitis in Children [Internet]. Lakecountyin.gov. Official Website of the Lake County Indiana Government; 2025 [cited 2025 Nov 17]. Available from: https://lakecountyin.gov/departments/health/nursing-clinic/diseases-and-conditions/childrens-conditions/understanding-bronchiolitis-in-children 

13. Humidifiers and health: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [Internet]. medlineplus.gov. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002104.htm 

14. Content – Health Encyclopedia – University of Rochester Medical Center [Internet]. Rochester.edu. 2025. Available from: https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content?contenttypeid=90&contentid=p02063 

15. Colds in children. Paediatrics & Child Health[Internet]. 2005 Oct;10(8):493–5. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2722603/ 

16. CDC. Sinus Infection Basics [Internet]. Sinus Infection. 2024. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/sinus-infection/about/index.html 

17. Nosebleed : MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [Internet]. medlineplus.gov. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003106.htm 

18. Should you give kids medicine for coughs and colds? FDA [Internet]. 2021 Jan 10; Available from: https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/should-you-give-kids-medicine-coughs-and-colds 

19. Safe Sleep Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) Are there risks associated with swaddling? [Internet]. [cited 2025 Sep 25]. Available from: https://www.health.mn.gov/people/womeninfants/infantmort/safesleepfaq.pdf 

20. Serrano TLI, Pfeilsticker L, Silva V, Hazboun I, Paschoal J, Maunsell R, et al. Newborn Nasal Obstruction due to Congenital Nasal Pyriform Aperture Stenosis. Allergy & Rhinology. 2016 Jan;7(1):ar.2016.7.0146. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27103559/#:~:text=Affiliation,severe%20respiratory%20distress%20in%20newborns. 

21. Schwartz C. Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [Internet]. Medlineplus.gov. 2016. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001563.htm 

22. Israel L, Rotter G, Förster-Ruhrmann U, Hummelsberger J, Nögel R, Michalsen A, et al. Acupressure in patients with seasonal allergic rhinitis: a randomized controlled exploratory trial. Chinese Medicine [Internet]. 2021 Dec 18;16:137. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8684198/ 

Disclaimer: The information provided here is for educational/awareness purposes only and is not intended to be a substitute for medical treatment by a healthcare professional and should not be relied upon to diagnose or treat any medical condition. The reader should consult a registered medical practitioner to determine the appropriateness of the information and before consuming any medication. PharmEasy does not provide any guarantee or warranty (express or implied) regarding the accuracy, adequacy, completeness, legality, reliability or usefulness of the information; and disclaims any liability arising thereof. 

Links and product recommendations in the information provided here are advertisements of third-party products available on the website. PharmEasy does not make any representation on the accuracy or suitability of such products/services. Advertisements do not influence the editorial decisions or content. The information in this blog is subject to change without notice. The authors and administrators reserve the right to modify, add, or remove content without notification. It is your responsibility to review this disclaimer regularly for any changes.

Colic in Babies: Meaning, Symptoms, Causes, and Effective Treatments 

Introduction 

If your little one cries for hours despite being fed, changed, and cuddled, you are not alone. Many parents experience this in the first few months of their baby’s life. It can be confusing and exhausting, especially when nothing seems to calm your baby down. The good news is that this phase is temporary and usually resolves on its own¹.

In this blog, we will help you understand what colic is in babies, what signs to look out for, what might cause it, and the simple ways you can comfort your baby and care for yourself during this period. 

What is Colic in Babies?

Colic is a common, yet puzzling condition seen in healthy babies during their first few months. It’s defined as repeated episodes of intense, inconsolable crying that lasts more than 3 hours a day, occurs on more than 3 days a week, and continues for at least 3 weeks².

Colic usually begins when a baby is about 2 to 3 weeks old, peaks around 6 weeks, and gradually settles by about 3 to 4 months of age³.

It is very important to understand that this is not caused by poor parenting or any serious illness. In fact, colic affects up to 3 to 28% babies worldwide, regardless of whether they’re breastfed or formula-fed³.

Signs and Symptoms of Colic

A baby with colic may^1,3:

• Cry suddenly, intensely, and for no clear reason (often in the late afternoon or evening) 
• Have a high-pitched cry and look flushed or tense 
• Curl up their legs, clench fists, and tighten their tummy muscles during crying spells 
• Commonly present with abdominal distension during a colic episode 
• Sometimes pass gas or have a bowel movement near the end of the episode 

These episodes can last anywhere from a few minutes to several hours, and during these, your baby may be hard to soothe despite your best efforts. 

What Causes Colic in Babies?

The exact cause of colic is not fully understood, which is what makes it so confusing for parents. However, an important thing to understand is that it is not your fault, and in most cases, it is not a sign of any serious illness. It is usually triggered by a combination of factors involving the baby’s digestion, development, and environment. 

Here are some of the possible reasons your baby may have colic⁴:

• Tummy Troubles (Gastrointestinal Factors): Many babies with colic seem to have tummy discomfort. Some possible digestive factors include: 
  • Gas or bloating: Some babies may swallow air while crying or feeding, leading to gas buildup and discomfort. 
  • Sensitivity to milk proteins: In rare cases, babies may react to proteins found in cow’s milk or even to certain foods in a breastfeeding mother’s diet (like dairy, onion, or broccoli). 
  • Lactose intolerance: Some infants may temporarily have trouble digesting lactose, the sugar in milk, leading to gas and fussiness. 

• Feeding-Related Issues: Feeding techniques might sometimes exacerbate colic. Overfeeding, underfeeding, feeding too quickly or an imbalance between foremilk and hindmilk ingestion, may all contribute to stomach discomfort and colic. 
• Hormonal Factors: Certain hormones in the baby’s gut, such as motilin and serotonin, may affect digestion and gut movement. Higher levels of these hormones could sometimes make a baby’s tummy more active and sensitive, leading to colicky behaviour. 
• Normal Brain and Emotional Development: Colic may simply be part of normal baby development. As newborns are still adjusting to life outside the womb, lights, sounds, hunger, and tiredness can all be overwhelming.  
• Family or Emotional Factors: Babies are sensitive to the world around them. Family stress, parental anxiety, or postpartum depression can sometimes contribute to longer crying spells in babies, though they don’t cause colic directly. 
• Remember: Colic does not mean you are doing something wrong as a parent. It is a common, temporary phase, and with support and patience, it passes. 

A common yet overlooked cause behind crying in babies could be a Hair torniquet i.e. a strand of hair wrapping around a finger or toe causing pain and swelling. Thus, it is very important to look at all the fingers to prevent any tissue damage. Also, if it is a male child, then genitals must to examined to rule out torsion of testes which is very common scenario in clinical practice.

Dr. Sarthak Soni, MBBS, MD (Pediatrics)

Risk Factors for Colic

While colic can happen to any baby, certain factors may make it more likely. Babies with the following characteristics had a higher chance of developing colic^1,3,5:

• Younger age (under 5 months): Colic almost always appears in babies between 2 weeks and 4 months of age and typically improves by 3 to 4 months. It is very uncommon after 5 months. 
• Feeding with cow’s milk–based formula: Some babies may be sensitive to cow’s milk proteins, which might contribute to gas or discomfort.  
• Preterm birth: Babies born before full term are more likely to have colic. 
• Low birth weight: Smaller babies might be more prone to newborn colic symptoms. 
• Firstborn status: Colic may be more common in firstborn babies, possibly due to parental stress or feeding adjustments. 
• Maternal atopy (allergies): Babies born to mothers with allergic conditions such as asthma, eczema, or hay fever could have a higher risk. 
• Persistent nausea during pregnancy: Mothers who experience ongoing nausea might be more likely to have babies with colic. 
• Postpartum depression: High levels of maternal depressive symptoms after delivery are sometimes strongly associated with infant colic. 
• Others: Factors such as maternal anxiety and habits like smoking may indirectly contribute to colic. Poor feeding techniques may also increase the risk. 

Diagnosing Colic

Colic is a clinical diagnosis based on a detailed history and physical exam to rule out other causes of excessive crying. The doctor reviews the infant’s feeding, stooling, sleeping patterns, and growth chart, and observes crying behaviour if possible. 

Typical colic presents as sudden, high-pitched crying with abdominal discomfort, but the baby otherwise appears healthy and gains weight normally. 

Abnormal findings suggesting other causes include a bulging fontanelle, thrush, otitis media, hernia, testicular torsion, blood in stools, diaper rash or signs of obstruction, infection, or injury. 

The Rome IV criteria define colic as³:

• Onset and resolution before 5 months of age 
• Recurrent, prolonged crying or irritability without an identifiable cause 
• No fever, poor weight gain, or illness 

If the exam is normal, no lab tests or imaging are needed. Additional evaluation is done only if symptoms suggest sepsis, reflux, cow’s milk allergy, or other medical conditions. 

Complications of Colic

Although infantile colic is self-limiting, it can have several emotional and behavioural consequences for both infants and caregivers. Here are some possible effects of colic^3,6,7:

• Distressing: Although self-limiting, colic can be highly stressful for caregivers. 
• Overfeeding: Not knowing the exact reason for crying spells can lead to frequent and unnecessary feeding. 
• Sleep deprivation: Lack of sleep in parents can lead to stress and loss of efficiency. 
• Parent–infant bonding issues: Persistent crying may strain the emotional bond and lead to early breastfeeding cessation. 
• Behavioural associations: Children with infantile colic may later develop preschool adaptive difficulties and behavioural problems. 
• Long-term risk: Infants with colic may have a higher likelihood of developing migraine by adolescence. 
• Severe consequence: Heightened risk of shaken baby syndrome (excessive violent shaking leading to brain damage) due to caregiver frustration and attempts to stop excessive crying⁸. 

Here, I would like to add a crucial insight about parental mental health and the bidirectional impact of stress on the condition. Research shows that infants are highly attuned to caregivers emotional states and tension in them can inadvertently heighten a baby’s distress, creating a cycle that is hard to break and mostly translates into these colic episodes becoming more frequent and increasing day by day. So the important crux of this is that parents being calm during these episodes is very important. They should be counselled regarding the benign nature of the condition and what red flags to look out for.

Dr. Sarthak Soni, MBBS, MD (Pediatrics)

Infantile Colic Treatment and Management Options

Infantile colic usually resolves on its own, but various comforting and feeding strategies could help soothe the baby and support caregivers during this stressful period. While no single remedy works for every infant, caregivers may try different infantile colic treatment approaches to see what helps. 

1. Comforting Techniques 

• Put baby in prone position. 
• Hold or cuddle your baby frequently to provide reassurance. 
• Rock your baby gently in your arms, a crib, or a stroller. 
• Swaddle your baby snugly in a soft blanket. 
• Sing or talk softly to your baby. 
• Use white noise (fan, vacuum, or soft music) to create a calming background. 
• Take your baby for a car ride or a gentle walk in a stroller. 
• Offer a pacifier for sucking comfort. 
• Place a warm towel on your baby’s abdomen for relief^1,9. 

2. Feeding and Positioning Tips 

• Keep your baby upright during and after feeds to reduce air swallowing. 
• Burp your baby frequently during and after feeding. 
• If breastfeeding, allow the baby to finish one breast before switching to ensure intake of hind milk, which is more soothing and satisfying. 
• For babies who overfeed or seem uncomfortable, offer one breast over a 2-to-3-hour period. 
• Avoid overfeeding or fast bottle feeding; feeding sessions should last around 20 minutes^1,3. 

3. Formula and Dietary Adjustments 

• Some infants may be sensitive to cow’s milk protein. A trial of hypoallergenic or hydrolysed formula after consulting your doctor may help in such cases³. 
• If breastfeeding, mothers may try eliminating dairy, caffeine, or chocolate for a few weeks. 
• Lactase enzyme drops before feeding may help if lactose intolerance is suspected. 

4. Caregiver Support 

• Take breaks, place the baby safely in a crib, and step away briefly if overwhelmed¹. 
• Seek guidance from a health visitor, paediatrician, or lactation consultant. 

Remember: Colic does not indicate illness and usually resolves by 3 to 4 months of age^1,3. 

Prevention Strategies

While colic cannot always be prevented, certain feeding practices and lifestyle adjustments might help reduce its occurrence or severity^1,3: 

• Ensure proper feeding technique: Keep the baby upright during feeding and burp often to minimise air swallowing. 
• Avoid overfeeding: Feed on demand and at a calm, steady pace. 
• Use appropriate bottle nipples: Choose a slow-flow nipple to prevent fast feeding and air intake. 
• Maintain a calm environment: Avoid overstimulation by dimming lights, reducing noise, and maintaining a soothing routine. 
• Monitor maternal diet (if breastfeeding): Limit caffeine, dairy, nuts, and gas-producing foods if colic symptoms appear. 
• Avoid certain medications: Consult a doctor about drugs that may pass into breast milk. 
• Identify formula sensitivities: If formula-fed, discuss switching to hypoallergenic or lactose-free formula with your doctor. 
• Encourage bonding and responsiveness: Holding and responding promptly to your baby’s cues may reduce fussiness. 
• Educate and support caregivers: Providing reassurance and practical coping strategies can prevent frustration and reduce stress. 

With time, patience, and proper support, colic typically resolves spontaneously by 4 to 5 months, leaving no lasting effects on the child’s health or development. 

Also Read: Baby Loose Motion: Causes, Home Remedies, and Effective Ways to Stop It Fast 

When to See a Doctor?

You should contact your doctor if^1,10:

• Colic does not improve with comfort measures. 
• Your baby’s crying pattern changes suddenly. 
• Colic continues beyond 3 months. 
• Your baby shows signs of another condition, such as eczema, gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD), weight loss or inadequate weight gain. 
• You are finding it difficult to cope. 

Further, seek immediate medical attention if your baby¹⁰:

• Has a weak, high-pitched, or continuous cry. 
• Appears floppy or unusually drowsy. 
• Refuses feeds or vomits green fluid. 
• Passes blood in stool or has persistent diarrhoea. 
• Has a fever ≥38°C (under 3 months) or ≥39°C (3 to 6 months). 
• Develops a bulging soft spot (fontanelle) on the head. 
• Has a seizure or turns pale, blue, or blotchy. 
• Shows difficulty breathing (fast, noisy, or grunting). 

Note: If you feel overwhelmed or unable to cope, seek support right away. Remember, help is available for both you and your baby. 

Also Read: 11 Signs of Type 1 Diabetes in Children You Must Not Ignore

Conclusion

Infantile colic is a common, benign (not harmful), and self-limiting condition, yet it can cause significant distress for both infants and caregivers. While its exact cause remains unclear, factors such as feeding patterns, gut microbiota, and parental stress may contribute. Thus, early recognition, reassurance, and supportive care are key to management.  

In most cases, newborn colic symptoms resolve by 3 to 4 months of age without long-term effects. However, persistent or severe crying should prompt medical evaluation to exclude underlying illness. Keep in mind that providing emotional support to caregivers is equally important to ensure the well-being of both the baby and the family. 

Also Read: Why Your Baby Isn’t Sleeping and How to Help Them Sleep Through the Night

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

References

1. MedlinePlus. Colic and crying in babies: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [Internet]. National Library of Medicine; [cited 2025 Oct 29]. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000753.htm 

2. Kheir AE. Infantile colic, facts and fiction. Ital J Pediatr. 2012 Jul 23;38:34. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3411470/ 

3. Banks JB, Rouster AS, Chee J. Infantile Colic. Treasure Island; [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing; [cited 2023 Oct 29]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK518962/ 

4. Mai T, Fatheree NY, Gleason W, Liu Y, Rhoads JM. Infantile Colic: New Insights into an Old Problem. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2018 Dec;47(4):829-844. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6659398/ 

5. Switkowski KM, Oken E, Simonin EM, Nadeau KC, Rifas-Shiman SL, Lightdale JR. Early-life risk factors for both infant colic and excessive crying without colic. Pediatr Res. 2025 Apr;97(5):1537-1545. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39242932/ 

6. Zeevenhooven J, de Bruin FE, Schappin R, Vlieger AM, van der Lee JH, et al. Follow-up of infants with colic into childhood: Do they develop behavioural problems? J Paediatr Child Health. 2022 Nov;58(11):2076-2083. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9804625/ 

7. Sillanpää M, Saarinen M. Infantile colic associated with childhood migraine: A prospective cohort study. Cephalalgia. 2015 Dec;35(14):1246-51. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25754178/ 

8. Barr RG. Preventing abusive head trauma resulting from a failure of normal interaction between infants and their caregivers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012 Oct 16;109 Suppl 2(Suppl 2):17294-301. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23045677/ 

9. National Health Service. Colic [Internet]. NHS; 26 April 2022 [cited 2025 Oct 29]. Available from: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/colic/ 

10. Northern Ireland Executive. Infantile colic (baby colic) [Internet]. NIDirect; [cited 2025 Oct 29]. Available from: https://www.nidirect.gov.uk/conditions/infantile-colic-baby-colic 

11. Emami F, Kamrani K, Khosroshahi N. Association between maternal migraine and infantile colic: a narrative review. BMC Pediatr. 2025 Aug 4;25(1):591. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12320377/ 

Disclaimer: The information provided here is for educational/awareness purposes only and is not intended to be a substitute for medical treatment by a healthcare professional and should not be relied upon to diagnose or treat any medical condition. The reader should consult a registered medical practitioner to determine the appropriateness of the information and before consuming any medication. PharmEasy does not provide any guarantee or warranty (express or implied) regarding the accuracy, adequacy, completeness, legality, reliability or usefulness of the information; and disclaims any liability arising thereof. 

Links and product recommendations in the information provided here are advertisements of third-party products available on the website. PharmEasy does not make any representation on the accuracy or suitability of such products/services. Advertisements do not influence the editorial decisions or content. The information in this blog is subject to change without notice. The authors and administrators reserve the right to modify, add, or remove content without notification. It is your responsibility to review this disclaimer regularly for any changes.

Why Your Baby Isn’t Sleeping and How to Help Them Sleep Through the Night

Introduction

Sometimes your little one’s sleep pattern may seem unpredictable. Despite the late-night rocking and the endless lullabies, your baby just wouldn’t sleep through the night, leaving you stressed and exhausted. You know this is temporary, and you’re living with the hope that soon your child would finally sleep long enough, but the current phase seems endless!  

Well, research shows that sleep patterns in infants and young children vary widely across ages, with newborns sleeping in short stretches and older babies gradually settling into longer, more consolidated sleep¹. For instance,  infants typically sleep about 12 to 16 hours a day, while toddlers average around 11 to 14 hours, but how and when those hours happen can differ greatly from one child to another².

In this article, we will try to answer some common questions related to this topic like why my baby is not sleeping deeply and how to make my baby sleep better. We will also explain how you can recognise early signs before overtiredness sets in, and share some simple, comforting strategies that can help your little one sleep comfortably for longer periods. 

Understanding Your Baby’s Sleep Needs

Sleep is one of the most essential functions of life, especially during infancy, when rapid growth and brain development are taking place. From the time a baby is born, sleep plays a vital role in supporting healthy physical, emotional, and cognitive development³.

Newborns and young infants spend much of their day sleeping, though their sleep is often fragmented and occurs in short cycles⁴. In the early weeks of life, babies do not yet have an established circadian rhythm, meaning they are not able to differentiate much between day and night. However, by around 10 to 12 weeks of age, the first signs of a regular sleep–wake cycle begin to appear, and many babies gradually start sleeping for longer stretches at night³. 

Experts like the National Sleep Foundation (NSF) recommend the following sleep durations as general guidelines⁵:

• Newborn baby sleeping time (0 to 3 months): 14 to 17 hours per day 
• Infants sleeping time (4 to 11 months): 12 to 15 hours per day 
• Toddlers’sleeping time (1 to 2 years): 11 to 14 hours per day 
• Preschoolers’sleeping time (3 to 5 years): 10 to 13 hours per day 

Ultimately, your baby’s sleep needs are unique and evolve quickly during the first few years of life. Therefore, if you are wondering why my baby is not sleeping deeply, understanding these natural changes can help you respond more confidently to your baby’s cues and create gentle, effective sleep routines. 

Why Your Baby Might Not Be Sleeping Well?

Sleep disturbances are a normal part of infancy, and every baby’s sleep pattern is different. Some babies sleep for long stretches, while others wake frequently during the night, and both can be completely normal.  

Here are some of the most common reasons: 

• Hunger or Growth Spurts: In the first few months, babies need to feed often, including at night. During growth spurts (when your child rapidly increases in height and weight), babies may wake more frequently to feed as their bodies demand extra energy⁶. 
• Discomfort: A wet diaper, being too hot or too cold, or even tight clothing can make it hard for your baby to settle⁷. 
• Medical Illness: Medical reasons a baby won’t sleep include issues like teething, gastric reflux, nasal obstruction, or a cough amongst others, which can cause discomfort and lead to frequent night-time waking^7,8.
• Overtiredness: Babies who stay awake for too long become overtired, making it harder for them to fall asleep or stay asleep⁷.
• Physiologic Conditions: Presence of neonatal reflex like startle reflex can make it difficult for the baby to fall asleep⁹. 
• Overstimulation: Loud noises, bright lights, or too much play before bedtime can make it difficult for your baby to wind down¹⁰.
• Changes in Environment or Routine: Travel, new surroundings, or even a change in caregivers can temporarily disrupt your baby’s sleep¹¹.
• Separation Anxiety: Many babies experience separation anxiety. They may resist sleep or cry when you leave the room because they feel distressed¹².

Note: Remember, occasional sleep struggles are part of normal development. With patience, gentle reassurance, and a consistent routine, most babies eventually learn to sleep for longer stretches as they grow. However, in some cases medical illnesses may be the cause of sleep disturbances. They need to be evaluated thoroughly and managed appropriately. 

In clinical practice, it is very common for parents to miss out on a disturbed sleep of babies which could be due to teething. In such cases, oral cavity should be checked regularly to look for erupting teeth. Taking a clean gauze piece soaked in ice cold water and compressing that gently over the gums helps in soothing and hence promotes sound sleep. if teething is the reason¹⁸.

Dr. Kathak Shah, MBBS, DDV, Fellowship in Lasers & Aesthetics, Fellowship in Dermatosurgery

Recognising Your Baby’s Tired Signs

Every baby has their own way of showing when they are ready for sleep. Thus, learning to spot these cues can make a big difference in helping your baby settle more easily and avoid becoming overtired. In the first few months, babies tire quickly¹³.

• Newborns (0 to 3 months): May show tired signs after being awake for just 30 minutes. 
• Babies (3 to 6 months): Often start getting tired after 1.5 to 3 hours of wakefulness. 

Common signs of tiredness include^13,14:

• Jerky or restless movements 
• Frowning or looking worried 
• Clenched fists 
• Yawning or fluttering eyelids 
• Staring into space or avoiding eye contact 
• Rubbing eyes or face 
• Sucking on fingers or hands 
• Crying  
• Arching of back 

Note: Sometimes, babies may show similar cues when they are bored (for example, staring or fussing). In those cases, a gentle change of activity or environment can help. But if your baby has been awake for a while and starts showing multiple sleepy cues, it’s best to create a calm environment and help them drift off to sleep before overtiredness sets in^13,14.

An important point I would want to emphasize here is about “cortical surge”. If you miss your baby’s natural sleep window by even 20 minutes, their body releases cortisol and adrenaline, that again stimulates their brain and makes them alert. This is why a baby who seems wide awake and hyperactive is actually severely overtired, not energetic, and requires a dark, low-stimulation rather than more activity¹⁷.

Dr. Sarthak Soni, MBBS, MD (Pediatrics)

Practical Ways to Help Your Baby Sleep Better & Quicker

Every baby is different, but most can be gently guided toward better sleep with a mix of routine, comfort, and consistency. So, if you want to know how to make a baby sleep, here are some practical ways to help your little one sleep more peacefully. 

1. Maintain Regular Sleep Patterns

Establish a consistent bedtime and wake-up routine to help your baby develop healthy sleep habits and feel secure¹³.

2. Separate Feeding from Sleep

 After a feed, enjoy brief playtime (like cuddles, floor play, or a short walk) so your baby does not always fall asleep right after feeding. This helps prevent a strong feed–sleep association that can lead to frequent night wakings¹⁵.

3. Watch for Tired Cues

Yawning, rubbing eyes, or becoming fussy are early signs that it’s time to sleep. Try settling your baby before they become overtired¹⁴.

4. Encourage Short Naps 

Offer 2 to 3 naps a day, each around 1 to 2 hours. Avoid very long or late-afternoon naps, which can disrupt night-time sleep¹⁴.

5. Maintain Proper Sleeping Posture

 Always place the baby on their back on a firm, flat surface for safe sleep. Neck should be well supported while keeping baby down¹⁶.

6. Swaddle Safely

 If your baby cannot yet roll over, wrapping them snugly can provide comfort. Ensure the swaddle allows free chest and hip movement and stop swaddling once rolling begins¹³.

7. Create a Day-Night Rhythm

Keep the daytime environment bright and interactive. At night, dim lights, lower noise, and keep feeds calm and quiet to signal it’s sleep time¹⁵. 

8. Use Calming Sounds and Cues

 Soft singing, lullabies, or white noise can help some babies relax¹³.

9. Keep Bedtime Predictable

A warm bath, gentle massage, and dim lights can make bedtime calm and reassuring¹³.

10. Promote Self-Settling

While holding or rocking is comforting, gradually letting your baby fall asleep in their own space can support better sleep habits over time¹⁴.

Parenting through sleepless nights can be exhausting, and your well-being matters, too. So, don’t forget to look after yourself¹⁵:

• Rest whenever possible, even during the day. 
• Ask for support from family or friends. 

Safe Sleep Guidelines for Babies

Creating a safe sleep environment is one of the most important steps you can take to protect your baby. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) supports the 2022 American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommendations for safe infant sleep. Here’s how you can help reduce the risk of sleep-related infant deaths, including Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)¹⁶:

• Always place your baby on their back (Supine position) for all sleep times, for both naps and nighttime. 
• Use a firm, flat sleep surface, such as a mattress in a safety-approved crib or bassinet, covered only with a fitted sheet. Avoid inclined or soft surfaces. 
• Share the room, not the bed. Keep your baby’s crib or bassinet in the same room where you sleep, ideally for at least the first 6 months. 
• Keep soft items and loose bedding out of the sleep area. Avoid blankets, pillows, crib bumpers, and soft toys, which can pose suffocation risks. 
• Avoid overheating. Dress your baby in light sleep clothing and never cover their head during sleep. Signs your baby may be too hot include sweating or a warm chest. 
• Avoid smoking, nicotine exposure, alcohol, and illegal drugs during pregnancy and after birth.  

Also Read: Rickets in Children: Causes, Symptoms, Types & Treatment

When to Seek Help for Sleep Issues?

While sleep challenges are common in babies, sometimes persistent problems may need extra attention. You should consider speaking with your paediatrician or a child sleep specialist if^13,15:

• Your baby has trouble falling or staying asleep most nights (even with a consistent routine). 
• Sleep issues are causing excessive fussiness, day-time sleepiness, poor feeding, or developmental concerns. 
• You notice sudden changes in sleep patterns not linked to growth spurts, teething, or illness. 
• You feel overwhelmed, anxious, or sleep-deprived and need guidance or support. 

Keep in mind that early intervention can make a big difference, both for your baby’s rest and your own peace of mind. A doctor can help rule out underlying medical issues, provide practical sleep strategies, and support your baby’s healthy development. 

Also Read: Oral Thrush in Babies: Why It Happens and How to Manage It Safely at Home 

Conclusion

Sleep challenges are a normal part of your baby’s growth and development. From recognising tired cues and establishing a calming bedtime routine to creating a safe, nurturing sleep environment, each small step helps your baby learn when and how to rest. Remember, there’s no one “right” way to help your baby sleep; what matters most is finding what works best for your family. Be patient with yourself and your little one as you navigate sleepless nights and ever-changing routines. Over time, consistent habits, gentle reassurance, and a safe sleep space will lead to better rest for everyone.  

Also Read: Baby Rash: Causes, Types, Home Remedies & Prevention 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

References

1. Galland BC, Taylor BJ, Elder DE, Herbison P. Normal sleep patterns in infants and children: a systematic review of observational studies. Sleep Med Rev. 2012 Jun;16(3):213-22. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21784676/ 

2. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. How Much Sleep Is Enough? [Internet]. NIH; [cited 2025 Nov 04]. Available from: https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/sleep/how-much-sleep 

3. Tham EK, Schneider N, Broekman BF. Infant sleep and its relation with cognition and growth: a narrative review. Nat Sci Sleep. 2017 May 15;9:135-149. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5440010/ 

4. De Beritto TV. Newborn Sleep: Patterns, Interventions, and Outcomes. Pediatr Ann. 2020 Feb 1;49(2):e82-e87. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32045487/ 

5. Hirshkowitz M, Whiton K, Albert SM, Alessi C, Bruni O, DonCarlos L, et al. National Sleep Foundation’s updated sleep duration recommendations: final report. Sleep Health. 2015 Dec;1(4):233-243. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29073398/ 

6. UNICEF. How often should a newborn feed? [Internet]. UNICEF; [cited 2025 Oct 28]. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/eca/stories/how-often-should-newborn-feed 

7. National Childbirth Trust. How to survive nights when your toddler keeps waking up [Internet]. NCT; [cited 2025 Oct 28]. Available from: https://www.nct.org.uk/information/baby-toddler/caring-for-your-baby-or-toddler/how-survive-nights-when-your-toddler-keeps-waking 

8. Seo WH, Park M, Eun SH, Rhie S, Song DJ, Chae KY. My child cannot breathe while sleeping: a report of three cases and review. BMC Pediatr. 2017 Jul 18;17(1):169. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5516313/ 

9. Pattnaik P, Al Khalili Y. Moro reflex [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing; [cited 2025 Nov 4]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542173/ 

10. National Health Service. Helping your baby to sleep [Internet]. NHS; [cited 2025 Oct 28]. Available from: https://www.nhs.uk/baby/caring-for-a-newborn/helping-your-baby-to-sleep/ 

11. Quante M, McGee GW, Yu X, von Ash T, Luo M, Kaplan ER, et al. Associations of sleep-related behaviors and the sleep environment at infant age one month with sleep patterns in infants five months later. Sleep Med. 2022 Jun;94:31-37. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10315002/ 

12. Scher A. Maternal separation anxiety as a regulator of infants’ sleep. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2008 Jun;49(6):618-25. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18341549/ 

13. Better Health Victoria. Preventing sleep concerns (0–6 months) [Internet]. Better Health Channel; [cited 2025 Oct 28]. Available from: https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/preventing-sleep-concerns-babies-0-6-months 

14. MedlinePlus. Bedtime habits for infants and children [Internet]. National Library of Medicine; [cited 2025 Oct 28]. Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002392.htm 

15. HealthyWA. Sleep 3–6 months [Internet]. Western Australia: Department of Health; [cited 2025 Oct 28]. Available from: https://www.healthywa.wa.gov.au/Articles/S_T/Sleep-3-6-months 

16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Safe sleep for babies: Reduce the risk of SIDS and other sleep-related causes of infant death [Internet]. CDC; [cited 2025 Oct 28]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/sudden-infant-death/sleep-safely/index.html 
17. Tuladhar CT, Schwartz S, St John AM, Meyer JS, Tarullo AR. Infant diurnal cortisol predicts sleep. J Sleep Res. 2021 Dec;30(6):e13357. doi:10.1111/jsr.13357. PMID:33870573. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33870573/
18. Macknin ML, Piedmonte M, Jacobs J, Skibinski C. Symptoms associated with infant teething: a prospective study. Pediatrics. 2000 Apr;105(4 Pt 1):747–752. doi:10.1542/peds.105.4.747. PMID:10742315. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10742315/

Disclaimer: The information provided here is for educational/awareness purposes only and is not intended to be a substitute for medical treatment by a healthcare professional and should not be relied upon to diagnose or treat any medical condition. The reader should consult a registered medical practitioner to determine the appropriateness of the information and before consuming any medication. PharmEasy does not provide any guarantee or warranty (express or implied) regarding the accuracy, adequacy, completeness, legality, reliability or usefulness of the information; and disclaims any liability arising thereof. 

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