Ovarian Cancer: Symptoms, Causes, Types, Stages, and Treatment Options

Introduction

Bloating, abdominal discomfort, or changes in the appetite in women may seem like digestive issues; however, if they are unusual for you and persist for longer than 2 weeks, they should be taken seriously. While these symptoms can have many causes, persistent or unusual changes may sometimes indicate ovarian cancer¹. This blog explores the common signs of ovarian cancer, risk factors, diagnosis and treatment of ovarian cancer, and can help you understand what to look out for and when to seek medical advice. 

What Is Ovarian Cancer?

Ovarian cancer is a cancer that starts in the ovaries, two small organs in the female reproductive system that produce eggs and hormones². It develops when abnormal cells grow uncontrollably in the ovary and form a tumour³. Some ovarian cancers may start in the fallopian tubes (small tubes that connect the ovaries to the womb) or nearby peritoneal tissues⁴. 

Symptoms of Ovarian Cancer

Although ovarian cancer cannot always be prevented, knowing the signs of ovarian cancer and recognising changes in your body can help you seek medical advice when needed. The common and possible ovarian cancer symptoms include^1,5:  

• Bloating or swelling in the abdomen 
• Pain or a feeling of pressure in the abdomen or pelvic area 
• Feeling full quickly or having difficulty eating 
• Needing to urinate more often or having a sudden urge to urinate 
• Constipation or other changes in bowel habits 
• Back pain 
• Unusual vaginal bleeding or discharge, especially after menopause 

It is important to pay attention to symptoms that are new, persistent, occur more frequently than usual, or represent a noticeable change from your normal pattern. 

Note: These symptoms may also be caused by conditions other than ovarian cancer and are not just ovarian cancer symptoms⁵.

Causes and Risk Factors of Ovarian Cancer

The exact cause of ovarian cancer is not exactly known. Several factors may increase the chance of developing ovarian cancer. Let’s have a look at ovarian cancer risk factors: 

• Genetic changes acquired during life: Changes in DNA that affect how cells grow and divide can lead to cancer. These can happen naturally during a person’s lifetime or due to environmental factors like UV ray exposure^2,3.
• Inherited gene changes: These are genetic changes passed from a parent, e.g., changes in BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes that are associated with breast cancer⁶. 
• Older age: The risk generally increases as women get older, particularly after menopause⁶. 
• Family history: Having a close relative (like mother, aunt or sister) with ovarian cancer can increase the risk⁶. 
• Personal history of breast cancer: Having had breast, uterine, or colorectal cancer in the past increases the risk of ovarian cancer⁶. 
• Endometriosis: Women with endometriosis (in which the inner lining of the uterus grows on tissues/organs outside the uterus) may have a higher risk of developing ovarian cancer⁶. 
• Never having given birth: Women who have never given birth or have had difficulty conceiving may have a higher risk of ovarian cancer⁶. 
• Early first period: Starting menstruation at a younger age may be linked with a higher risk, as found in some studies⁷. 
• Late menopause: Going through menopause at an older age may increase risk⁷. 
• Hormone replacement therapy (HRT): Taking HRT may increase the risk⁷. 
• Being overweight: Higher body weight is associated with an increased risk of ovarian cancer⁷. 
• Smoking: Smoking is linked with some types of ovarian cancer⁷. 
• Certain reproductive or fertility factors: Some studies have found links between infertility and ovarian cancer⁸. 

Note: Having one or more risk factors does not mean that a woman will develop ovarian cancer. Some women may develop the disease without having any known risk factors⁶. 

Types of Ovarian Cancer 

Ovarian cancer is grouped into different types depending on the cells where the cancer starts. The three main types are⁹: 

1. Epithelial ovarian cancer

This is the most common type of ovarian cancer. It begins in the cells that form the outer covering of the ovary. The different types of epithelial ovarian cancer include^9,10: 

• Serous  
• Mucinous  
• Endometrioid 
• Clear cell 
• Transitional cell 

2. Germ cell ovarian cancer

This is a less common type that starts in the cells that normally develop into eggs. It is more often found in teenagers and younger women⁹.

3. Stromal cell ovarian cancer

This rare type develops in the cells that support the ovary and help it produce hormones. It develops in the tissues that support the ovaries and may be diagnosed at an early stage⁹.

Together, these three groups make up most ovarian cancers. Some cancers found in the ovary may also have started in another part of the body and then spread to the ovary. 

Ovarian Cancer Stages

Ovarian cancer is usually divided into four stages, based on how far it has spread⁵.

• Stage 1: Cancer is found only in one or both ovaries or fallopian tubes.  
  • IA: Cancer is in one ovary or fallopian tube.  
  • IB: Cancer is in both ovaries or fallopian tubes.  
  • IC: Cancer is in one or both ovaries or fallopian tubes, with additional features such as rupture of the tumour or outer covering of the ovary or cancer cells in abdominal cavity or washings of the tissue lining this cavity. 

• Stage 2: Cancer is found in one or both ovaries or fallopian tubes and has spread to nearby organs within the pelvis or primary peritoneal cancer is found in the pelvis.  
  • IIA: Cancer has spread to the uterus and/or both ovaries or fallopian tubes.  
  • IIB: Cancer has spread to other organs in the pelvis, such as the colon. 

• Stage 3: Cancer is primary peritoneal cancer or is found in one or both ovaries or fallopian tubes and has spread outside the pelvis to the abdomen or nearby lymph nodes.  
  • IIIA1: Cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes.  
  • IIIA2: There is spread to the abdominal lining outside the pelvis that can be only seen with a microscope.  
  • IIIB: Visible cancer deposits outside the pelvis are 2 cm or smaller.  
  • IIIC: Visible cancer deposits outside the pelvis are larger than 2 cm. 

• Stage 4: Cancer has spread to distant parts of the body, such as the lungs or liver. 
  • IVA: Cancer cells are found in the fluid that has built up around the lungs.  
  • IVB: Cancer has spread to distant organs or lymph nodes outside the abdomen. 

Knowing the ovarian cancer stages helps doctors determine the right treatment options. 

How Is Ovarian Cancer Diagnosed?

If a doctor suspects ovarian cancer, they may recommend a few tests for ovarian cancer diagnosis. These include: 

• Medical history: The doctor will ask about your symptoms, when they started, any previous health problems or treatments⁵, and whether ovarian or breast cancer has occurred in your family. 
• Physical and pelvic examination: The doctor may gently examine your abdominal and pelvic area to look for swelling, lumps or areas of discomfort and the size, shape, and position of the ovaries and uterus⁵.
• Blood tests: A blood test may measure CA-125, a protein that may increase in ovarian cancer. However, CA-125 may also be high in conditions like endometriosis; therefore, CA-125 alone cannot diagnose or screen for ovarian cancer and is used along with other tests¹¹. 
• Ultrasound scan: An ultrasound scan uses sound waves to create images of the organs and tissues in the abdomen⁵ to check for any abnormalities. Transvaginal Ultrasound (TVS) is a key first-line imaging test when an ovarian or pelvic abnormality is suspected⁴.
• CT scan: A CT scan can provide more detailed images of the inside of the body to confirm the diagnosis. A dye may be used during a CT scan to provide clearer images^5,12. 
• MRI or PET scan: These scans may sometimes be recommended to give doctors a clearer picture of the tumour¹³. 
• Biopsy or tissue testing: If needed, a small sample of tissue may be taken during surgery and examined under a microscope to check for cancer cells^5,12. 
• Laparoscopy : In some cases, a specialist may place a camera through a small cut on the abdomen to examine the area closely¹².
• Laparotomy or Surgery: May also be done to remove some tissue or the ovaries¹². 

Ovarian Cancer Treatment Options

Ovarian cancer treatment varies from person to person. It depends on the type and stage of the cancer, its location, whether it has spread, and the person’s overall health. A specialist team will discuss the most suitable treatment and what to expect⁵. The common options include: 

1. Surgery

Surgery is a common treatment for ovarian cancer and aims to remove as much of the cancer as possible. Depending on the type and stage of the cancer, this may involve removing one or both ovaries, the fallopian tubes, the uterus, or nearby tissues. 

2. Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy uses medicines to stop cancer cell growth by stopping them from multiplying or killing them. It may be given before or after surgery and can also be used if the cancer returns. 

3. Targeted therapy

These medicines target specific cancer cells or other type of cells that help cancer cells grow. They may be offered to some people with advanced or recurrent ovarian cancer. 

4. Radiotherapy

Radiotherapy uses high-energy radiation to destroy cancer cells. It is not usually the main treatment for ovarian cancer, but it may sometimes be used to control symptoms or treat cancer that has spread to another part of the body. 

5. Immunotherapy

This treatment uses substances to boost or direct the body’s immune system to help fight cancer cells⁵.

6. Hormone therapy

Some of the ovarian cancers develop or grow using hormones such as estrogen. Hormone therapy may be used to block these hormones so that the cancer does not grow. 

7. Treatment if the cancer returns

If ovarian cancer comes back, the treatment will depend on where it has returned, previous treatments and the person’s overall health. Options may include chemotherapy, targeted therapy, hormone therapy or further surgery¹⁴. 

Not everyone will need all these treatments. The Gynaecologic oncology team will explore options available for each individual and, based on the possible benefits and side effects of each, will help the individual decide on the most suitable approach to remove as much of the cancer as possible (cytoreduction). 

How to Prevent Ovarian Cancer?

There is no certain way to prevent ovarian cancer, but some steps may help lower its chance or help early diagnosis¹⁵. These include: 

• Know your family history: Tell your doctor if any of your close relatives have had ovarian or breast cancer, so that appropriate screening tests may be done¹⁵.
• Consider genetic advice: If cancer runs in your family, your doctor may recommend genetic counselling or testing¹⁵.
• Maintain a healthy weight: Being overweight is linked with a higher chance of ovarian cancer¹⁶. 
• Avoid smoking: Stopping smoking can help reduce the risk of several cancers¹⁶. 
• Discuss HRT with your doctor: Taking HRT after menopause is associated with increased risk of ovarian cancer. If you are currently taking HRT, speak to your doctor about the potential risks and further steps¹⁶. 
• Ask about contraception: Using oral contraceptive pills is associated with a lower risk of ovarian cancer. However, they should not be used solely for cancer prevention as they cannot prevent cancer completely¹⁷. 
• Certain surgeries: Some procedures, such as having the fallopian tubes tied (tubal ligation) or removing the fallopian tubes (salpingectomy), both ovaries (bilateral oophorectomy), or the uterus (and sometimes the cervix) may reduce the risk of ovarian cancer¹⁷. 
• Breastfeeding: Breastfeeding may slightly reduce the risk of ovarian cancer, particularly when breastfeeding continues for a longer period¹⁵.

No method can completely prevent ovarian cancer, so knowing the symptoms and getting unusual changes checked is important. 

Also Read: Common Cancer Symptoms and Warning Signs in Women

When to Consult a doctor?

Speak to your doctor if you notice symptoms such as the following that are unusual for you, last for 2 weeks or longer, become more frequent, or do not improve¹:

• Persistent bloating or swelling of the tummy 
• Pelvic pain or pressure 
• Abdominal or back pain 
• Feeling full quickly or having difficulty eating 
• Needing to urinate more often or having an urgent need to urinate 
• Changes in bowel habits, such as constipation 
• Unusual vaginal bleeding or discharge, especially after menopause 

These symptoms can have many causes and do not necessarily mean ovarian cancer. However, if they are unusual for you or persist, it is important to speak to your doctor. 

Conclusion

Ovarian cancer may be hard to spot because its early signs can resemble common stomach or urinary problems. Being aware of changes such as persistent bloating, pelvic or tummy discomfort, reduced appetite or feeling full sooner than usual can help you recognise when you may need medical attention. Talking to a doctor about symptoms that don’t settle can help identify the underlying cause and ensure you get the right care early. Knowing your family history and personal risk can also help you discuss any concerns with your doctor. 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

References

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2. Ovarian Cancer. Accessed September 3, 2026. https://medlineplus.gov/ovariancancer.html 

3. What Is Cancer? – NCI. September 17, 2007. Accessed September 3, 2026. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/understanding/what-is-cancer 

4. Ovarian, Fallopian Tube, & Primary Peritoneal Cancers Prevention – NCI. Accessed September 8, 2026. https://www.cancer.gov/types/ovarian/patient/ovarian-prevention-pdq? 

5. Treatment of Ovarian Epithelial, Fallopian, & Peritoneal Cancers – NCI. February 10, 2026. Accessed September 3, 2026. https://www.cancer.gov/types/ovarian/patient/ovarian-epithelial-treatment-pdq 

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9. 3 types of ovarian cancer, explained. NIH MedlinePlus Magazine. Accessed September 3, 2026. https://magazine.medlineplus.gov/article/3-types-of-ovarian-cancer-explained 

10. Tumor Morphology | SEER Training. Accessed September 3, 2026. https://training.seer.cancer.gov/ovarian/abstract-code-stage/ovarian-morphology.html? 

11. Ovarian Cancer Early Detection, Diagnosis, and Staging. Accessed September 3, 2026. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/ovarian-cancer/detection-diagnosis-staging.html 

12. Ovarian cancer – Tests and next steps. nhs.uk. February 15, 2022. Accessed September 3, 2026. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/ovarian-cancer/tests-and-next-steps/ 

13. Expert Panel on GYN and OB Imaging, Stein EB, Venkatesan AM, et al. ACR Appropriateness Criteria® Staging and Follow-Up of Ovarian Cancer: 2025 Update. J Am Coll Radiol JACR. 2025;22(11S):S689-S698. doi:10.1016/j.jacr.2025.08.033 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41193052/

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17. CDC. Reducing Risk for Ovarian Cancer. Ovarian Cancer. September 23, 2025. Accessed August 27, 2026. https://www.cdc.gov/ovarian-cancer/prevention/index.html 

18. Yeole BB, Kumar AVR, Kurkure A, Sunny L. Population-based survival from cancers of breast, cervix and ovary in women in Mumbai, India. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev APJCP. 2004;5(3):308-315. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15373712/

19. CDC. Treatment of Ovarian Cancer. Ovarian Cancer. April 23, 2026. Accessed September 4, 2026. https://www.cdc.gov/ovarian-cancer/treatment/index.html 

20. DeMarco C. Can pelvic organ prolapse be a sign of cancer? UT MD Anderson. Accessed September 3, 2026. https://www.mdanderson.org/cancerwise/can-pelvic-organ-prolapse-be-a-sign-of-cancer.h00-159618645.html 

21. Pelvic organ prolapse – NHS. Accessed September 3, 2026. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pelvic-organ-prolapse/ 

22. CDC. Cancers Caused by HPV. Human Papillomavirus (HPV). March 3, 2025. Accessed September 4, 2026. https://www.cdc.gov/hpv/about/cancers-caused-by-hpv.html 

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